Characteristics of the Volunteer Environment and Their Associations With Well‐Being in Older Adulthood

ABSTRACT

Issue Addressed

Although volunteering has been linked to well‐being, little is known about the mechanisms underpinning these associations. This study sought to understand the conditions under which benefits occur for older adults who volunteer.

Methods

A community‐based sample of 458 participants was recruited for this cross‐sectional survey through online study advertisements via social media, email and newsletters. The primary predictor variables were the 21 domains of Work Design Characteristics, and the secondary predictor was Physical Functioning. Outcomes included the Scale of Positive and Negative Experiences, the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Flourishing Scale.

Results

Findings showed social support and favourable work conditions were associated with higher life satisfaction and psychological flourishing, while interactions outside the organization were linked to negative affect. Task characteristics (e.g., variety of tasks) and knowledge characteristics (e.g., skills required) were more strongly associated with higher well‐being among volunteers with poorer physical functioning.

Conclusions

This study extends current understanding of the contextual, psychological and subjective factors influencing the relationship between volunteering and well‐being in later life. The findings highlight that specific aspects of the volunteer experience are differentially associated with well‐being, especially for those with poorer functional health.

So What?

These findings have direct implications for volunteer organizations seeking to design roles that maximize well‐being benefits for older adults. Given the rapid ageing of the global population and increasing reliance on volunteer contributions, this research area is essential for informing policies and practices that support older adults' engagement in fulfilling and sustainable volunteer roles.

1. Introduction

Formal volunteering refers to the provision of unpaid assistance willingly given in the form of time, services or skills to an organization or group [1]. In recent decades, an extensive body of literature has demonstrated a positive relationship between formal volunteering and favourable psychological outcomes in later life, including superior subjective well‐being (e.g., positive affect and life satisfaction) [2, 3, 4, 5] and psychological well‐being [2, 3, 6, 7]. However, questions remain as to whether specific contextual features of the volunteering experience (e.g., the nature of the work itself and the work environment) facilitate these beneficial effects. To inform the development of volunteer roles that optimize positive outcomes for older volunteers, the present study examined how specific characteristics of the volunteering experience relate to subjective and psychological well‐being and whether these associations are moderated by functional health.

The Social Model of Health Promotion developed by Fried [8] posits that volunteering fosters social engagement, physical activity and cognitive stimulation, which in turn promote favourable health and well‐being outcomes. This model aligns with broader well‐being perspectives, including the Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT) [9], which emphasizes that the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs—autonomy (i.e., sense of independence in decision‐making), competence (i.e., feeling of effectiveness and mastery in one's interactions and endeavours) and relatedness (i.e., sense of connection, belonging and meaningful relationships with others)—is fundamental to human flourishing. In the context of volunteering, roles that promote autonomy in task management, require diverse skills and knowledge, nurture close relationships and offer physical stimulation (thereby reinforcing health and functional competence) are therefore likely to enhance well‐being by contributing to psychological need fulfilment.

Existing empirical research has identified numerous correlates of well‐being among older volunteers, including the physical, social and cognitive activity involved, the meaningfulness of the role, receiving adequate support and training, recognition for efforts, and autonomy in choosing activities and schedules [2, 3, 8, 10, 11]. Jongenelis and Pettigrew [3] reported that perceived social and mental intensity of the volunteer role, recognition for contributions and belief in benefiting others were associated with superior self‐esteem, self‐efficacy and sense of purpose cross‐sectionally. A subsequent longitudinal follow‐up found that the perceived importance of the cause and the meaningfulness of the activities undertaken predicted improvements in positive affect, self‐esteem, self‐efficacy and social connections over 6 months [12].

To date, research examining the relationships between characteristics of the volunteering role and well‐being among older adults has primarily focused on a limited range of broad contextual factors (e.g., social, mental and physical activity) using unvalidated single‐item measures [3, 11]. While informative, single‐item measures limit the ability to pinpoint which specific volunteer characteristics drive positive outcomes. For example, assessing mental activity alone overlooks distinct components of mental workload, such as role complexity, information‐processing demands and problem‐solving requirements, that may differentially affect well‐being. To address these limitations, the present study assessed volunteering characteristics by using a validated and widely used measure of work characteristics, the Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) [13], adapted to the volunteer context.

Previous research using the WDQ has demonstrated that WDQ domains of task characteristics (i.e., autonomy, task variety, task significance and task identity), knowledge characteristics (i.e., job complexity and information processing), social characteristics (i.e., social support, interdependence, feedback, and external interaction) and work context characteristics (i.e., comfortable, hazard‐free environment) are positively associated with employee satisfaction and motivation [14]. Applying this more comprehensive approach to measurement in volunteer settings could provide important insights into the specific aspects of volunteer roles that contribute to volunteer well‐being.

However, the relevance of specific work characteristics may differ depending on whether roles are paid or voluntary. Unlike paid employees who are often motivated by financial incentives [15], older volunteers are more likely driven by generative and altruistic motives [16, 17] and may be less concerned with future‐oriented goals related to employment [18]. As a result, whereas factors such as feedback from others and skill variety that feed into career advancement may be significant for well‐being among the paid labour force, roles that offer opportunities for social interaction and community contribution may be more central to the well‐being of older volunteers. The initial aim of the present study was to explore the associations between the comprehensive range of work characteristics captured by the WDQ and key markers of well‐being among older volunteers.

1.1. Physical Functioning as a Moderator of the Volunteering and Well‐Being Relationship

The current study also seeks to examine whether aspects of the volunteering context are differentially associated with well‐being among older volunteers with varying levels of functional health. Only a few previous studies have examined possible moderators of associations between volunteer work characteristics and well‐being, see [3]. These studies have focused on socio‐demographic characteristics and found limited evidence for moderating effects [3].

In the present study, we moved beyond a focus on socio‐demographic characteristics by examining the role of physical functioning as a potential moderator. Health restrictions become more common in later life, and physically demanding volunteer roles may be associated with lower well‐being among those in poorer functional health. Additionally, health restrictions can limit older adults' ability to engage in informal social interactions, increasing their risk of social isolation [19]. In such cases, volunteering roles that offer a structured environment for social engagement may be particularly valuable, helping to satisfy relatedness needs among those in poorer functional health [20]. Lastly, physical decline can lead to a loss of independence and control over one's environment [21]. In this context, volunteering opportunities that provide autonomy may be especially important for maintaining well‐being among those in relatively poorer functional health.

1.2. Present Study

The current study seeks to extend previous research on volunteer work characteristics and well‐being in two ways: by employing a comprehensive measure that captures a range of relevant aspects of the volunteer work environment and by examining moderating effects of physical functioning on associations between work characteristics and well‐being. Based on existing literature on volunteering or paid work and well‐being [3, 14], we expect (a) task, knowledge, and social characteristics to be positively associated with both subjective and psychological well‐being, (b) that contextual characteristics (i.e., a comfortable hazard‐free work environment) will be positively associated with well‐being among older volunteers and (c) that older adults with poorer physical functioning will show stronger positive associations between autonomy and social work characteristics with well‐being. We also expect weaker positive associations between physical demands and well‐being among those with poorer functional health.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

A community‐based sample of 458 participants was recruited in 2022 through the distribution of study advertisements via: (a) the Generations Research Initiative at Flinders University; (b) the South Australian Office for Ageing Well's digital publication ‘Weekend Plus’; (c) eBulletins distributed to other Australian online networks comprising older adults (e.g., Seniors Card Programs and Universities of the Third Age) and (d) the Flinders University Facebook page. Eligible participants were aged 60 or older and actively engaged as formal volunteers for an organization or group. Participants were excluded for missing data on 80% or more of the variables (n = 50) or for reporting no volunteering within the past month (n = 5). The final sample consisted of 403 participants aged between 60 and 90 years. Power analysis using Stata's [22] ‘powerreg’ module indicated that a sample size of at least 312 was required to detect a significant predictor variable (> 80% power; R ² = 0.20 for the full model; unique variance of 3% from individual predictor; α = 0.01). Demographic characteristics of the sample are provided in Table 1.

TABLE 1.

Sociodemographic characteristics of participants.

Characteristics		n (%)
Age (years)	Mean (SD)	70.63 (6.06)
Gender (n, %)	Male	83 (20.3)
	Female	325 (79.7)
Ancestry a (n, %)	Australian	242 (60)
	English	79 (19.6)
	Other	82 (20.3)
Education (n, %)	Tertiary Education or higher	324 (80.4)
	High School Education or lower	79 (19.6)
Relationship status (n, %)	Partnered	268 (66.5)
	Not partnered	135 (33.5)
Employment status (n, %)	Employed	57 (14.1)
	Unemployed	346 (85.9)
Physical functioning b	Mean (SD)	80.49 (19.66)
Volunteering roles c	Mean (SD)	2.03 (1.18)
Volunteering hours d	Mean (SD)	12.44 (14.45)

Note: N = 403 total participants.

Abbreviation: SD, standard deviation.

^a Respondents could choose multiple categories.

^b Higher scores indicate greater physical functioning (range 0–100).

^c Reflects the average number of volunteer roles currently held by participants.

^d Reflects the average weekly volunteering hours reported by participants over the past month.

2.2. Procedure

Following approval by the Flinders University Human Research Ethics Committee (Project ID 5285), the opportunity to participate in a research study about ‘Volunteering and Well‐Being’ was advertised through the networks mentioned above. Interested individuals were provided with a link to an online Qualtrics survey. Participation was incentivized by committing to donate up to a total of $500 to charity, with the total amount dependent on participant numbers.

2.3. Measures

2.3.1. Volunteer Work Design Characteristics

Volunteer work design characteristics were assessed using a modified version of the Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) [13]. The WDQ contains 77 items that assess 21 work characteristics, which are grouped into four higher‐order domains: Task Characteristics (24‐items), Knowledge Characteristics (20‐items), Social Characteristics (19‐items) and Work Context Characteristics (14‐items). The Task domain includes seven characteristics: work scheduling autonomy, decision‐making autonomy and work methods autonomy (which form the Autonomy sub‐dimension), as well as task variety, task significance, task identity and feedback from job. The knowledge domain includes five characteristics: job complexity, information processing, problem solving, skill variety and specialization. The social domain comprises five characteristics: social support, initiated interdependence and received interdependence (which form the Interdependence sub‐dimension), interaction outside the organization and feedback from others. The Work Context domain consists of four characteristics: ergonomics, physical demands, work conditions and equipment use. The questionnaire was adapted by rephrasing items from ‘job’ to ‘volunteer role’. Items are rated on a 5‐point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Following the reverse scoring of negatively worded items, the responses were averaged to generate total scores for each of the 21 work design characteristics. The WDQ has demonstrated good internal reliability across subscales (Cronbach's α = 0.64–95, mean α = 0.86) [13].

2.3.2. Positive and Negative Affect

Positive and negative affect were assessed using the Scale of Positive and Negative Experiences during the past 4 weeks (SPANE) [23]. The SPANE is a 12‐item scale that assesses recent positive and negative experiences and emotions. Items (e.g., ‘Good’, ‘Bad’) are rated on 5‐point scales (1 = very rarely or never, 5 = very often or always). The SPANE produces separate summed scores for both positive (SPANE‐P) and negative (SPANE‐N) feelings, with higher scores indicating more positive or negative affect, respectively. The SPANE has demonstrated good internal reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.80–0.88), convergent validity and consistent psychometric properties across cultures, e.g. [24, 25].

2.3.3. Life Satisfaction

Life satisfaction was assessed using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) [26]. The SWLS is a 5‐item scale that assesses general life satisfaction. Items (e.g., ‘I am satisfied with my life’) were rated on 7‐point scales (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) and summed to create an overall life satisfaction score, with higher scores indicating greater life satisfaction. The SWLS has demonstrated good internal reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.87) and good convergent and predictive validity across populations [26].

2.3.4. Psychological Flourishing

Psychological flourishing was assessed using the Flourishing Scale (FS) [24]. The 8‐item scale assesses perceived success in key areas such as relationships, self‐esteem, purpose and optimism. Items (e.g., ‘My social relationships are supportive and rewarding’) were rated on 7‐point scales (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) and summed to create an overall score, with higher scores indicating greater psychological flourishing. The FS has demonstrated good internal reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.86) and high convergence with similar scales [24].

2.3.5. Physical Functioning

Physical functioning was assessed using the 10‐item ‘Physical Functioning’ subscale of the RAND 36‐Item Health Survey 1.0 [27]. Items (e.g., ‘Lifting or carrying groceries’) were rated using a 3‐point scale (0 = Yes, limited a lot, 50 = Yes, limited a little, 100 = No, not limited at all) based on the extent to which an individual's current health limits their ability to perform each activity. Scores on this measure were averaged to create an overall functional health score, with higher scores indicating greater physical functioning.

2.3.6. Covariates

Covariates including age, gender (coded 0 = male, 1 = female), education (coded 0 = tertiary education, 1 = high school or lower), employment status (coded 0 = employed, 1 = unemployed) and relationship status (coded 0 = partnered, 1 = unpartnered) were controlled for due to empirically established associations with well‐being [28]. For the number of volunteer roles, participants were asked to specify the number of separate formal volunteering roles they currently held, while volunteer hours were assessed by asking the average number of hours per week dedicated to volunteering in the previous month.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Separate linear regressions were run using SPSS Statistics 27.0.1 [29] to determine which characteristics of the volunteer environment were associated with each well‐being component, adjusted for covariates. Main effect models were run for each measure of well‐being, incorporating all volunteering characteristics into a combined model to evaluate their unique associations and controlling for covariates. Nonsignificant volunteer work characteristics were progressively excluded until each main effect model included only significant characteristics. Moderation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro to determine whether functional health moderated the relationships between each of the volunteer work design characteristics and the well‐being outcomes. Significant interactions were plotted using predicted values for hypothetical individuals scoring higher (84th percentile) and lower (16th percentile) on the relevant work characteristic and physical functioning (the moderator). Given the high number of statistical comparisons, alpha was set at 0.01 [30].

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics for the volunteer work design characteristics and well‐being outcome measures are provided in Table S1. Participants showed moderate levels of agreement across most volunteer work design characteristics. Intercorrelations among respondents' ratings of the volunteer work design characteristics, well‐being outcome measures and covariates are presented in Tables S2 and S3.

3.2. Associations of Volunteer Work Design Characteristics With Well‐Being

The first objective of this study was to investigate the associations between volunteer work design characteristics and well‐being outcomes (i.e., positive affect, negative affect, life satisfaction and psychological flourishing), controlling for covariates. Results of initial analyses that considered each characteristic separately within the four WDQ domains are presented in Tables S4–S7. Non‐significant WDQ characteristics were progressively excluded to arrive at the final models, presented in Table S8. Social support was the WDQ characteristic most consistently associated with well‐being. Results revealed a significant association of social support with higher life satisfaction, psychological flourishing and positive affect, and lower negative affect, when controlling for covariates. Work conditions (i.e., the extent to which the physical work environment is comfortable and safe) were significantly associated with higher life satisfaction and psychological flourishing. Interaction outside of the organization (i.e., communication with individuals external to the volunteer organization) was associated with higher negative affect. None of the other WDQ characteristics were associated with the well‐being outcomes and hence are omitted from Table S8.

3.3. Moderating Role of Physical Functioning on Work Design Characteristics and Well‐Being

Results of the moderation analyses revealed several interactions involving physical functioning. Results are presented below with relevant WDQ characteristics grouped according to the higher‐order WDQ classifications of task, knowledge, social and contextual characteristics. Detailed statistical summaries for each interaction can be found in Tables S9–S13 and Figures S1–S4.

3.3.1. Task Characteristics

3.3.1.1. Autonomy

The Autonomy sub‐dimension comprises three distinct characteristics: work scheduling autonomy, decision‐making autonomy and work methods autonomy. Moderation analysis revealed a significant interaction between decision‐making autonomy and physical functioning in predicting life satisfaction (see Table S14). As illustrated in Figure 1, among those with worse physical functioning, greater decision‐making autonomy was associated with higher life satisfaction, B = 2.01, SE = 0.46, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 1.11, 2.92. Conversely, for those with better physical functioning, life satisfaction remained consistently high regardless of decision‐making autonomy levels, B = 0.51, SE = 0.40, p = 0.201, 95% CI = −0.27, 1.30.

FIGURE 1.

Association between decision‐making autonomy and life satisfaction moderated by physical functioning. ‘Worse Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 16th percentile, while ‘Better Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 84th percentile.

3.3.1.2. Task Significance

Task significance reflects the degree to which the volunteer role influences the lives or work of other people. Moderation analysis revealed a significant task significance × physical functioning interaction on life satisfaction (see Table S15) and psychological flourishing (see Table S16). As illustrated in Figure 2, for those with worse physical functioning, task significance was positively associated with life satisfaction, B = 2.09, SE = 0.53, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 1.05, 3.13. Conversely, for those with better physical functioning, life satisfaction remained consistently high regardless of task significance, B = 0.22, SE = 0.43, p = 0.606, 95% CI = −0.62, 1.07. For psychological flourishing, post hoc analyses showed the positive effect of task significance on psychological flourishing was stronger for individuals with worse physical functioning, B = 3.35, SE = 0.57, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 2.23, 4.46, compared to those with better physical functioning, B = 1.51, SE = 0.45, p = 0.001, 95% CI = 0.62, 2.40 (see Figure S1).

FIGURE 2.

Association between task significance and life satisfaction moderated by physical functioning. ‘Worse Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 16th percentile, while ‘Better Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 84th percentile.

3.3.2. Knowledge Characteristics

3.3.2.1. Problem‐Solving

Problem‐solving assesses the extent to which the volunteer role requires generating ideas or solutions to address issues. Moderation analysis revealed a significant problem‐solving × physical functioning interaction on life satisfaction (see Table S9 and Figure S4). As shown in Figure 3, among participants with worse physical functioning, higher scores on problem‐solving were associated with higher life satisfaction, B = 1.68, SE = 0.48, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 0.74, 2.61. Conversely, for those with better physical functioning, life satisfaction scores remained consistently high regardless of the level of problem‐solving, B = 0.07, SE = 0.41, p = 0.870, 95% CI = −0.74, 0.87.

FIGURE 3.

Association between problem‐solving and life satisfaction moderated by physical functioning. ‘Worse Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 16th percentile, while ‘Better Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 84th percentile.

3.3.3. Social Characteristics

3.3.3.1. Interaction Outside Organization

Interaction outside the organization measures the extent to which the role involves communicating and working with individuals external to the volunteer organization. Moderation analysis revealed a significant interaction outside the organization × physical functioning interaction on psychological flourishing (see Table S10), life satisfaction (see Table S11) and negative affect (see Table S12). Among those with worse physical functioning, greater interaction outside of the organization was associated with higher psychological flourishing, B = 2.05, SE = 0.45, p < 0.001, 95% CI = 1.17, 2.93 (see Figure 4) and life satisfaction, B = 1.06, SE = 0.42, p = 0.011, 95% CI = 0.25, 1.88 (see Figure S2). Conversely, for those with better physical functioning; psychological flourishing, B = −0.09, SE = 0.38, p = 0.820, 95% CI = −0.84, −0.67 and life satisfaction, B = −0.27, SE = 0.36, p = 0.450, 95% CI = −0.98, 0.43, remained consistently high regardless of the extent of interaction outside of the organization.

FIGURE 4.

Association between interaction outside organization and psychological flourishing moderated by physical functioning. ‘Worse Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 16th percentile, while ‘Better Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 84th percentile.

For negative affect, post hoc analyses showed greater interaction outside of the organization was associated with higher negative affect among those with better physical functioning, B = 0.59, SE = 0.21, p = 0.006, 95% CI = 0.18, 1.01, whereas for those with worse physical functioning, the effect of interaction outside of the organization on negative affect was non‐significant, B = −0.22, SE = 0.24, p = 0.363, 95% CI = −0.69, 0.25 (see Figure S3).

3.3.4. Contextual Characteristics

3.3.4.1. Equipment Use

Equipment use is one of the four characteristics within the Work Context domain. It assesses the variety and complexity of the equipment that volunteers are required to use in their role. Moderation analysis revealed a significant equipment use × physical functioning interaction on life satisfaction, B = −0.05, SE = 0.02, p = 0.006, 95% CI = −0.08, −0.01. As shown in Figure 5, higher scores on equipment use were associated with lower life satisfaction for those with better physical functioning, B = −0.94, SE = 0.39, p = 0.018, 95% CI = −1.71, −0.16, whereas for those with worse physical functioning, life satisfaction remained consistent regardless of equipment use, B = 0.72, SE = 0.51, p = 0.158, 95% CI = −0.28, 1.72.

FIGURE 5.

Association between equipment use and life satisfaction moderated by physical functioning. ‘Worse Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 16th percentile, while ‘Better Physical Functioning’ represents participants within the 84th percentile.

4. Discussion

4.1. Associations Between Volunteering Characteristics and Well‐Being

The analysis of main effects revealed few reliable WDQ predictors, with social support emerging as the work characteristic most consistently correlated with well‐being. Here, social support refers to the extent to which volunteer roles provide opportunities for interactions with others, friendship‐building and the mutual exchange of support among volunteers. Results showed a positive association between social support and favourable well‐being outcomes, with this effect remaining significant even after controlling for age, gender, education, employment and relationship status, and physical functioning. Social support emerged as the volunteer work characteristic most consistently associated with well‐being. These findings are consistent with previous literature demonstrating similar associations of social support with higher self‐esteem, personal growth, meaningful engagement, socialization and life satisfaction among older volunteers [11]. The findings also align with Fried's [8] Social Model of Health Promotion and Ryan and Deci's [9] Basic Psychological Needs Theory, which emphasize relatedness—a sense of connection, belonging and meaningful relationships—as essential to well‐being. Volunteering provides structured and consistent opportunities for meaningful social interaction, which provide regular social contact and opportunities to build lasting relationships. Furthermore, volunteering often involves reciprocal social exchanges, which reinforce volunteers' sense of purpose and belonging [31]. Our findings contribute to this growing body of literature by suggesting that designing volunteer roles which emphasize positive social interaction, peer support and friendship‐building could amplify the positive impact of volunteering for well‐being among older adults.

Interaction outside of the organization was associated with negative affect. One potential explanation is that interactions with external personnel may introduce social demands that are less predictable, less emotionally rewarding or more difficult to manage than interactions within the organization. The Socioemotional Selectivity Theory [32] suggests that older adults become increasingly selective in their social relationships, prioritizing emotionally meaningful interactions while avoiding those perceived as less rewarding or more taxing. Although older adults are often experts at curating a social environments that minimize stressors, they may be less well equipped to cope effectively with unavoidable social stressors compared with younger adults [33]. Consistent with this view, research shows that negative social exchanges in later life [34] and interactions with external stakeholders in paid employment [35] are associated with poorer well‐being, greater affect and reduced job satisfaction. In a volunteering context, interactions outside the organization may therefore elicit negative affect when they are experienced as obligatory or misaligned with older volunteers' socioemotional goals.

Work conditions—the degree to which the volunteer environment is comfortable and free from hazards—were also associated with higher levels of life satisfaction and psychological flourishing. Studies have found associations between better work conditions and increased job satisfaction, as well as reduced stress among paid employees [14]. Favourable work conditions may contribute to psychological well‐being in volunteering by preventing discomfort, minimizing fatigue and lowering the risk of injury. These findings emphasize the importance of implementing measures to improve work conditions within volunteering environments, such as safety protocols, maintaining cleanliness and addressing hazards, to maximize the benefits of older adults' involvement in volunteering. We acknowledge that for many not‐for‐profit organizations reliant on volunteers, large‐scale investments may not always be feasible. However, creative and low‐cost strategies may still contribute to a more comfortable and supportive environment. Simple ergonomic adjustments, such as foam mats in standing areas or designated rest spaces, may help reduce discomfort associated with prolonged standing. Additionally, clear safety signage, regular break reminders and structured task rotation may help to minimize fatigue and injury risks. By fostering environments that prioritize safety and well‐being, volunteer organizations can enhance the experiences of older adult volunteers and maximize the benefits of their involvement.

4.2. Physical Functioning as a Moderator of Associations Between Volunteering Characteristics and Well‐Being

Our findings suggest that while social aspects of volunteering support well‐being overall, task and knowledge characteristics play a more significant role for those with poorer functional health. Autonomy and knowledge characteristics (i.e., opportunities for decision‐making autonomy and problem‐solving) appeared to play a particularly important role in life satisfaction of older adults with poorer physical functioning. This suggests that volunteering may serve a compensatory role in fulfilling psychological needs of autonomy and competence that might otherwise be diminished by physical limitations [9, 36]. These findings align with Baltes and Baltes' [36] Selective Optimization with Compensation model, which posits that individuals adapt to age‐related declines by optimizing available resources and seeking out compensatory strategies when goals are blocked. Decision‐making autonomy in volunteer roles may help reinforce a sense of control and agency, providing a context for meaningful choices about their contributions [9]. Similarly, engaging in cognitively stimulating, problem‐solving tasks may help sustain intellectual engagement and self‐efficacy, enabling individuals to maintain a sense of competence despite physical limitations [37]. Thus, by integrating these elements into volunteer role design, organizations can create more inclusive and fulfilling opportunities that are likely to help satisfy autonomy and competence needs in the face of functional health constraints and improve well‐being.

An unexpected finding was the negative association between equipment use (the variety and complexity of the equipment used) and life satisfaction among those with better physical functioning. While speculative, one possible explanation is that for individuals in good health, time spent working with machinery may come at the expense of social interaction, which our findings suggest is a key driver of well‐being in volunteering. This raises interesting questions about the role of contextual work characteristics in shaping the volunteer experience and whether they impose unintended trade‐offs or opportunity costs when one type of volunteer activity (e.g., operating machinery) is undertaken at the expense of another (e.g., working collaboratively with others). Future research should explore how the physical and environmental aspects of volunteer roles interact with social and cognitive dimensions to optimize the volunteer experience for older adults with varying functional abilities.

4.3. Strengths and Limitations

This study offers several strengths, including being the first investigation we are aware of to assess the context of volunteer experiences using a comprehensive measure, validated in the work domain. However, there were several limitations. First, the cross‐sectional design precludes causal inferences, as well‐being may shape patterns of volunteer engagement, making it possible that individuals with higher well‐being self‐select into certain volunteer environments [38]. Second, data collection occurred in 2022 during the COVID‐19 pandemic when older adults faced heightened health risks and limited opportunities due to facility closures and restrictions [39, 40]. As a result, there may have been disruptions to volunteer roles that do not reflect typical volunteer experiences. Lastly, the sample included a high proportion of tertiary‐educated participants (80.4%), which may limit the generalizability of findings to volunteers with lower educational attainment. While higher education is associated with greater participation in formal volunteering, the sample may also reflect differential engagement with research and the recruitment methods used, including online publications, eBulletins and social media. Consequently, older volunteers with lower educational attainment or fewer socioeconomic resources may be underrepresented.

5. Conclusions

This study provides important contributions to our understanding of how the characteristics of volunteer roles could affect the experience of volunteering in older adulthood and highlights the significance of social support, work conditions and task and knowledge characteristics as key correlates of positive psychological outcomes. These findings have implications for volunteer organizations seeking to maximize well‐being benefits for older adults. Specifically, organizations should prioritize opportunities for social connection by fostering structured, meaningful interpersonal interactions and by attending to the quality and appropriateness of the physical environment. Additionally, finding opportunities to incorporate decision‐making autonomy (e.g., flexibility, leadership, or problem‐solving opportunities) and cognitive engagement into volunteering, particularly for individuals with functional limitations, may help counteract psychological challenges associated with age‐related losses in functional capacity. Future research should adopt longitudinal designs to better establish causal relationships between volunteering characteristics and well‐being and explore the impact of different types of volunteer activities (e.g., environmental work, charity‐based volunteering or educational roles) on well‐being. Given the rapid ageing of the global population and the increasing reliance on volunteer contributions to society and the economy [41], continued research in this area is essential for informing policies and practices that support older adults' engagement in fulfilling and sustainable volunteer activity.

Funding

The first author was supported by a Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship.

Ethics Statement

This study was approved by the Flinders University Human Research Ethics Committee (Project ID 5285).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper.

Supporting information

Table S1: Means and standard deviations for key study variables.

Table S2: Pearson correlations among the ‘Volunteering and Well‐Being in Older Adulthood’ work design characteristics.

Table S3: Pearson correlations among the ‘Volunteering and Well‐Being in Older Adulthood’ outcome measures and covariates.

Table S4: Unstandardized and standardized parameter estimates for task characteristics.

Table S5: Unstandardized and standardized parameter estimates for knowledge characteristics.

Table S6: Unstandardized and standardized parameter estimates for social characteristics.

Table S7: Unstandardized and standardized parameter estimates for contextual characteristics.

Table S8: Coefficients, standard errors, p‐values and 95% confidence intervals for the main effects analyses.

Table S9: Interaction between problem‐solving and physical functioning in predicting life satisfaction.

Table S10: Interaction between interaction outside of the organization and physical functioning in predicting psychological flourishing.

Table S11: Interaction between interaction outside of the organization and physical functioning in predicting life satisfaction.

Table S12: Interaction between interaction outside of the organization and physical functioning in predicting negative affect.

Table S13: Interaction between equipment use and physical functioning in predicting life satisfaction.

Table S14: Interaction between decision‐making autonomy and physical functioning in predicting life satisfaction.

Table S15: Interaction between task significance and physical functioning in predicting life satisfaction.

Table S16: Interaction between task significance and physical functioning in predicting psychological flourishing.

Figure S1: Association between task significance and psychological flourishing moderated by physical functioning.

Figure S2: Association between interaction outside of the organization and life satisfaction moderated by physical functioning.

Figure S3: Association between interaction outside of the organization and negative affect moderated by physical functioning.

Figure S4: Association between problem‐solving and life satisfaction moderated by physical functioning.

Harvey A., Galanis C. R., and Windsor T. D., “Characteristics of the Volunteer Environment and Their Associations With Well‐Being in Older Adulthood,” Health Promotion Journal of Australia 38, no. 1 (2027): e70271, 10.1002/hpja.70271.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.