Abstract
Asthma is the most common chronic disease of childhood and affects nearly 5 million children. The prevalence and severity of childhood asthma have continued to increase over the past decade despite major advances in the recognition and treatment of this condition. A comparison of urban and rural children suggests that the etiology of airway disease is multifactorial and that unique exposures and genetic factors contribute to the development of asthma in both settings. The most important environmental exposure that distinguishes the rural environment and is known to cause asthma is the organic dusts. However, animal-derived proteins, common allergens, and low concentrations of irritants also contribute to the development of airway disease in children and adults living in rural communities. A fundamental unanswered question regarding asthma is why only a minority of children who wheeze at an early age develop persistent airway disease that continues throughout their life. Although genetic factors are important in the development of asthma, recurrent airway inflammation, presumably mediated by environmental exposures, may result in persistent airway hyperresponsiveness and the development of chronic airway disease. Increasing evidence indicates that control of the acute inflammatory response substantially improves airflow and reduces chronic airway remodeling. Reducing exposure to agricultural dusts and treatment with anti-inflammatory medication is indicated in most cases of childhood asthma. In addition, children with asthma from rural (in comparison to urban) America face multiple barriers that adversely affect their health e.g., more poverty, geographic barriers to health care, less health insurance, and poorer access to health care providers. These unique problems must be considered in developing interventions that effectively reduce the morbidity and mortality of asthma in children from rural communities.
Full text
PDFImages in this article
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Antó J. M., Sunyer J., Rodriguez-Roisin R., Suarez-Cervera M., Vazquez L. Community outbreaks of asthma associated with inhalation of soybean dust. Toxicoepidemiological Committee. N Engl J Med. 1989 Apr 27;320(17):1097–1102. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198904273201701. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Armanious M., Cotton D., Wright J., Dosman J., Carr I. Grain dust and alveolar macrophages: an experimental study of the effects of grain dust on the mouse lung. J Pathol. 1982 Apr;136(4):265–272. doi: 10.1002/path.1711360402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Asgari M. M., DuBois A., Asgari M., Gent J., Beckett W. S. Association of ambient air quality with children's lung function in urban and rural Iran. Arch Environ Health. 1998 May-Jun;53(3):222–230. doi: 10.1080/00039899809605699. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bates D. V., Sizto R. Air pollution and hospital admissions in Southern Ontario: the acid summer haze effect. Environ Res. 1987 Aug;43(2):317–331. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(87)80032-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Beasley R., Roche W. R., Roberts J. A., Holgate S. T. Cellular events in the bronchi in mild asthma and after bronchial provocation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 Mar;139(3):806–817. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/139.3.806. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Beutler B., Milsark I. W., Cerami A. C. Passive immunization against cachectin/tumor necrosis factor protects mice from lethal effect of endotoxin. Science. 1985 Aug 30;229(4716):869–871. doi: 10.1126/science.3895437. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Blaski C. A., Watt J. L., Quinn T. J., Thorne P. S., Schwartz D. A. Nasal lavage cellularity, grain dust, and airflow obstruction. Chest. 1996 Apr;109(4):1086–1092. doi: 10.1378/chest.109.4.1086. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bleecker E. R. Airways reactivity and asthma: significance and treatment. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1985 Jan;75(1 Pt 1):21–24. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(85)90006-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Border W. A., Noble N. A. Transforming growth factor beta in tissue fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 1994 Nov 10;331(19):1286–1292. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199411103311907. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bousquet J., Chanez P., Lacoste J. Y., Barnéon G., Ghavanian N., Enander I., Venge P., Ahlstedt S., Simony-Lafontaine J., Godard P. Eosinophilic inflammation in asthma. N Engl J Med. 1990 Oct 11;323(15):1033–1039. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199010113231505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brewster C. E., Howarth P. H., Djukanovic R., Wilson J., Holgate S. T., Roche W. R. Myofibroblasts and subepithelial fibrosis in bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1990 Nov;3(5):507–511. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb/3.5.507. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Broder I., McAvoy D. Characterization of precipitation reaction between grain dust and normal human serum and comparison of reactive and nonreactive grain handlers. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1981 Nov;21(2):141–153. doi: 10.1016/0090-1229(81)90203-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brooks S. M., Weiss M. A., Bernstein I. L. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS). Persistent asthma syndrome after high level irritant exposures. Chest. 1985 Sep;88(3):376–384. doi: 10.1378/chest.88.3.376. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Buck M. G., Wall J. H., Schachter E. N. Airway constrictor response to cotton bract extracts in the absence of endotoxin. Br J Ind Med. 1986 Apr;43(4):220–226. doi: 10.1136/oem.43.4.220. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bush R. K., Schroeckenstein D., Meier-Davis S., Balmes J., Rempel D. Soybean flour asthma: detection of allergens by immunoblotting. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1988 Aug;82(2):251–255. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(88)91007-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Busse W. W., Banks-Schlegel S. P., Larsen G. L. Effects of growth and development on lung function. Models for study of childhood asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Jul;156(1):314–319. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.156.1.9612121. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Carlson M. L., Petersen G. R. Mortality of California agricultural workers. J Occup Med. 1978 Jan;20(1):30–32. doi: 10.1097/00043764-197801000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Castellan R. M., Olenchock S. A., Hankinson J. L., Millner P. D., Cocke J. B., Bragg C. K., Perkins H. H., Jr, Jacobs R. R. Acute bronchoconstriction induced by cotton dust: dose-related responses to endotoxin and other dust factors. Ann Intern Med. 1984 Aug;101(2):157–163. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-101-2-157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Castellan R. M., Olenchock S. A., Kinsley K. B., Hankinson J. L. Inhaled endotoxin and decreased spirometric values. An exposure-response relation for cotton dust. N Engl J Med. 1987 Sep 3;317(10):605–610. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198709033171005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cavagna G., Foà V., Vigliani E. C. Effects in man and rabbits of inhalation of cotton dust or extracts and purified endotoxins. Br J Ind Med. 1969 Oct;26(4):314–321. doi: 10.1136/oem.26.4.314. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chan-Yeung M., Malo J. L. Occupational asthma. N Engl J Med. 1995 Jul 13;333(2):107–112. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199507133330207. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chan-Yeung M. Occupational asthma. Chest. 1990 Nov;98(5 Suppl):148S–161S. doi: 10.1378/chest.98.5_supplement.148s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chan-Yeung M., Schulzer M., MacLean L., Dorken E., Tan F., Lam S., Enarson D., Grzybowski S. A follow-up study of the grain elevator workers in the Port of Vancouver. Arch Environ Health. 1981 Mar-Apr;36(2):75–81. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1981.10667610. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chan-Yeung M., Wong R., MacLean L. Respiratory abnormalities among grain elevator workers. Chest. 1979 Apr;75(4):461–467. doi: 10.1378/chest.75.4.461. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chetta A., Foresi A., Del Donno M., Bertorelli G., Pesci A., Olivieri D. Airways remodeling is a distinctive feature of asthma and is related to severity of disease. Chest. 1997 Apr;111(4):852–857. doi: 10.1378/chest.111.4.852. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Christiani D. C., Ye T. T., Wegman D. H., Eisen E. A., Dai H. L., Lu P. L. Cotton dust exposure, across-shift drop in FEV1, and five-year change in lung function. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Nov;150(5 Pt 1):1250–1255. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.150.5.7952548. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Clapp W. D., Becker S., Quay J., Watt J. L., Thorne P. S., Frees K. L., Zhang X., Koren H. S., Lux C. R., Schwartz D. A. Grain dust-induced airflow obstruction and inflammation of the lower respiratory tract. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Sep;150(3):611–617. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.150.3.8087327. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Clapp W. D., Thorne P. S., Frees K. L., Zhang X., Lux C. R., Schwartz D. A. The effects of inhalation of grain dust extract and endotoxin on upper and lower airways. Chest. 1993 Sep;104(3):825–830. doi: 10.1378/chest.104.3.825. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cockcroft D. W. Airway hyperresponsiveness: therapeutic implications. Ann Allergy. 1987 Dec;59(6):405–414. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Coulombe P. A., Filion P. R., Côté M. G. Histomorphometric study of the pulmonary response of guinea pigs to chronic cotton dust inhalation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1986 Sep 30;85(3):437–449. doi: 10.1016/0041-008x(86)90351-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Crago S., Coors L., Lapidus J. A., Sapien R., Murphy S. J. Prehospital treatment of acute asthma in a rural state. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1998 Oct;81(4):322–325. doi: 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)63123-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Crockett A. J., Cranston J. M., Alpers J. H. The changing prevalence of asthma-like respiratory symptoms in South Australian rural schoolchildren. J Paediatr Child Health. 1995 Jun;31(3):213–217. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1754.1995.tb00788.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cuthbert O. D., Brostoff J., Wraith D. G., Brighton W. D. 'Barn allergy': asthma and rhinitis due to storage mites. Clin Allergy. 1979 May;9(3):229–236. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1979.tb01547.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- DUNNILL M. S. The pathology of asthma, with special reference to changes in the bronchial mucosa. J Clin Pathol. 1960 Jan;13:27–33. doi: 10.1136/jcp.13.1.27. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Davies R. J., Green M., Schofield N. M. Recurrent nocturnal asthma after exposure to grain dust. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1976 Nov;114(5):1011–1019. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1976.114.5.1011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Deetz D. C., Jagielo P. J., Quinn T. J., Thorne P. S., Bleuer S. A., Schwartz D. A. The kinetics of grain dust-induced inflammation of the lower respiratory tract. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Jan;155(1):254–259. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.1.9001321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Detels R., Sayre J. W., Coulson A. H., Rokaw S. N., Massey F. J., Jr, Tashkin D. P., Wu M. M. The UCLA population studies of chronic obstructive respiratory disease. IV. Respiratory effect of long-term exposure to photochemical oxidants, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfates on current and never smokers. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1981 Dec;124(6):673–680. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1981.124.6.673. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Djukanović R., Roche W. R., Wilson J. W., Beasley C. R., Twentyman O. P., Howarth R. H., Holgate S. T. Mucosal inflammation in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Aug;142(2):434–457. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/142.2.434. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Djukanović R., Wilson J. W., Britten K. M., Wilson S. J., Walls A. F., Roche W. R., Howarth P. H., Holgate S. T. Quantitation of mast cells and eosinophils in the bronchial mucosa of symptomatic atopic asthmatics and healthy control subjects using immunohistochemistry. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Oct;142(4):863–871. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/142.4.863. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Donham K., Haglind P., Peterson Y., Rylander R., Belin L. Environmental and health studies of farm workers in Swedish swine confinement buildings. Br J Ind Med. 1989 Jan;46(1):31–37. doi: 10.1136/oem.46.1.31. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dutoit J. I., Salome C. M., Woolcock A. J. Inhaled corticosteroids reduce the severity of bronchial hyperresponsiveness in asthma but oral theophylline does not. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987 Nov;136(5):1174–1178. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/136.5.1174. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Evans R., 3rd, Mullally D. I., Wilson R. W., Gergen P. J., Rosenberg H. M., Grauman J. S., Chevarley F. M., Feinleib M. National trends in the morbidity and mortality of asthma in the US. Prevalence, hospitalization and death from asthma over two decades: 1965-1984. Chest. 1987 Jun;91(6 Suppl):65S–74S. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Friborsky V., Ulrich L., Tesík L., Malik E. Morphological changes of rat lung after exposure to plant dust. Acta Morphol Acad Sci Hung. 1972;20(3):191–197. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Garcia D. P., Corbett M. L., Sublett J. L., Pollard S. J., Meiners J. F., Karibo J. M., Pence H. L., Petrosko J. M. Cockroach allergy in Kentucky: a comparison of inner city, suburban, and rural small town populations. Ann Allergy. 1994 Mar;72(3):203–208. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gerrard J. W., Mink J., Cheung S. S., Tan L. K., Dosman J. A. Nonsmoking grain handlers in Saskatchewan: airways reactivity and allergic status. J Occup Med. 1979 May;21(5):342–346. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Glindmeyer H. W., Lefante J. J., Jones R. N., Rando R. J., Weill H. Cotton dust and across-shift change in FEV1 as predictors of annual change in FEV1. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Mar;149(3 Pt 1):584–590. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.149.3.8118622. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Haahtela T., Järvinen M., Kava T., Kiviranta K., Koskinen S., Lehtonen K., Nikander K., Persson T., Selroos O., Sovijärvi A. Effects of reducing or discontinuing inhaled budesonide in patients with mild asthma. N Engl J Med. 1994 Sep 15;331(11):700–705. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199409153311103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Haber L. D. Disabling effects of chronic disease and impairment. J Chronic Dis. 1971 Sep;24(7):469–487. doi: 10.1016/0021-9681(71)90031-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Haglind P., Rylander R. Exposure to cotton dust in an experimental cardroom. Br J Ind Med. 1984 Aug;41(3):340–345. doi: 10.1136/oem.41.3.340. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Herbert A., Carvalheiro M., Rubenowitz E., Bake B., Rylander R. Reduction of alveolar-capillary diffusion after inhalation of endotoxin in normal subjects. Chest. 1992 Oct;102(4):1095–1098. doi: 10.1378/chest.102.4.1095. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hoek G., Fischer P., Brunekreef B., Lebret E., Hofschreuder P., Mennen M. G. Acute effects of ambient ozone on pulmonary function of children in The Netherlands. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Jan;147(1):111–117. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/147.1.111. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Holgate S. T., Beasley R., Twentyman O. P. The pathogenesis and significance of bronchial hyper-responsiveness in airways disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 1987 Dec;73(6):561–572. doi: 10.1042/cs0730561. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Holgate S. T., Djukanović R., Howarth P. H., Montefort S., Roche W. The T cell and the airway's fibrotic response in asthma. Chest. 1993 Feb;103(2 Suppl):125S–128S. doi: 10.1378/chest.103.2_supplement.125s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hosein H. R., Mitchell C. A., Bouhuys A. Evaluation of outdoor air quality in rural and urban communities. Arch Environ Health. 1977 Jan-Feb;32(1):4–13. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1977.10667245. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Iversen M., Dahl R., Korsgaard J., Hallas T., Jensen E. J. Respiratory symptoms in Danish farmers: an epidemiological study of risk factors. Thorax. 1988 Nov;43(11):872–877. doi: 10.1136/thx.43.11.872. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jagielo P. J., Quinn T. J., Qureshi N., Schwartz D. A. Grain dust-induced lung inflammation is reduced by Rhodobacter sphaeroides diphosphoryl lipid A. Am J Physiol. 1998 Jan;274(1 Pt 1):L26–L31. doi: 10.1152/ajplung.1998.274.1.L26. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jagielo P. J., Thorne P. S., Watt J. L., Frees K. L., Quinn T. J., Schwartz D. A. Grain dust and endotoxin inhalation challenges produce similar inflammatory responses in normal subjects. Chest. 1996 Jul;110(1):263–270. doi: 10.1378/chest.110.1.263. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- James A. L., Cookson W. O., Buters G., Lewis S., Ryan G., Hockey R., Musk A. W. Symptoms and longitudinal changes in lung function in young seasonal grain handlers. Br J Ind Med. 1986 Sep;43(9):587–591. doi: 10.1136/oem.43.9.587. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeffery P. K., Godfrey R. W., Adelroth E., Nelson F., Rogers A., Johansson S. A. Effects of treatment on airway inflammation and thickening of basement membrane reticular collagen in asthma. A quantitative light and electron microscopic study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Apr;145(4 Pt 1):890–899. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/145.4_Pt_1.890. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeffery P. K., Wardlaw A. J., Nelson F. C., Collins J. V., Kay A. B. Bronchial biopsies in asthma. An ultrastructural, quantitative study and correlation with hyperreactivity. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 Dec;140(6):1745–1753. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/140.6.1745. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones A. P., Bentham G. Health service accessibility and deaths from asthma in 401 local authority districts in England and Wales, 1988-92. Thorax. 1997 Mar;52(3):218–222. doi: 10.1136/thx.52.3.218. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Juniper E. F., Kline P. A., Vanzieleghem M. A., Ramsdale E. H., O'Byrne P. M., Hargreave F. E. Effect of long-term treatment with an inhaled corticosteroid (budesonide) on airway hyperresponsiveness and clinical asthma in nonsteroid-dependent asthmatics. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Oct;142(4):832–836. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/142.4.832. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Keller G. E., 3rd, Lewis D. M., Olenchock S. A. Demonstration of inflammatory cell population changes in rat lungs in response to intratracheal instillation of spring wheat dust using lung enzymatic digestion and centrifugal elutriation. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 1987;10(3-4):219–226. doi: 10.1016/0147-9571(87)90032-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kennedy S. M., Christiani D. C., Eisen E. A., Wegman D. H., Greaves I. A., Olenchock S. A., Ye T. T., Lu P. L. Cotton dust and endotoxin exposure-response relationships in cotton textile workers. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987 Jan;135(1):194–200. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1987.135.1.194. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kips J. C., Tavernier J., Pauwels R. A. Tumor necrosis factor causes bronchial hyperresponsiveness in rats. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Feb;145(2 Pt 1):332–336. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/145.2_Pt_1.332. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Laitinen L. A., Heino M., Laitinen A., Kava T., Haahtela T. Damage of the airway epithelium and bronchial reactivity in patients with asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1985 Apr;131(4):599–606. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1985.131.4.599. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Laitinen T., Räsänen M., Kaprio J., Koskenvuo M., Laitinen L. A. Importance of genetic factors in adolescent asthma: a population-based twin-family study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 Apr;157(4 Pt 1):1073–1078. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.4.9704041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lauque D., Prevost M. C., Carles P., Chap H. Signal transducing mechanisms in human platelets stimulated by cotton bract tannin. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1991 Jan;4(1):65–71. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb/4.1.65. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Liu M. C., Bleecker E. R., Lichtenstein L. M., Kagey-Sobotka A., Niv Y., McLemore T. L., Permutt S., Proud D., Hubbard W. C. Evidence for elevated levels of histamine, prostaglandin D2, and other bronchoconstricting prostaglandins in the airways of subjects with mild asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Jul;142(1):126–132. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/142.1.126. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lombardi E., Morgan W. J., Wright A. L., Stein R. T., Holberg C. J., Martinez F. D. Cold air challenge at age 6 and subsequent incidence of asthma. A longitudinal study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Dec;156(6):1863–1869. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.156.6.9612066. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lundgren R., Söderberg M., Hörstedt P., Stenling R. Morphological studies of bronchial mucosal biopsies from asthmatics before and after ten years of treatment with inhaled steroids. Eur Respir J. 1988 Dec;1(10):883–889. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Madge P., McColl J., Paton J. Impact of a nurse-led home management training programme in children admitted to hospital with acute asthma: a randomised controlled study. Thorax. 1997 Mar;52(3):223–228. doi: 10.1136/thx.52.3.223. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Martinez F. D., Wright A. L., Taussig L. M., Holberg C. J., Halonen M., Morgan W. J. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. The Group Health Medical Associates. N Engl J Med. 1995 Jan 19;332(3):133–138. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199501193320301. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Massion P. P., Inoue H., Richman-Eisenstat J., Grunberger D., Jorens P. G., Housset B., Pittet J. F., Wiener-Kronish J. P., Nadel J. A. Novel Pseudomonas product stimulates interleukin-8 production in airway epithelial cells in vitro. J Clin Invest. 1994 Jan;93(1):26–32. doi: 10.1172/JCI116954. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- McCurdy S. A., Ferguson T. J., Goldsmith D. F., Parker J. E., Schenker M. B. Respiratory health of California rice farmers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 May;153(5):1553–1559. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.153.5.8630601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Metzger W. J., Zavala D., Richerson H. B., Moseley P., Iwamota P., Monick M., Sjoerdsma K., Hunninghake G. W. Local allergen challenge and bronchoalveolar lavage of allergic asthmatic lungs. Description of the model and local airway inflammation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987 Feb;135(2):433–440. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1987.135.2.433. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Michel O., Duchateau J., Sergysels R. Effect of inhaled endotoxin on bronchial reactivity in asthmatic and normal subjects. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1989 Mar;66(3):1059–1064. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1989.66.3.1059. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Michel O., Ginanni R., Le Bon B., Content J., Duchateau J., Sergysels R. Inflammatory response to acute inhalation of endotoxin in asthmatic patients. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Aug;146(2):352–357. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/146.2.352. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Milton D. K., Godleski J. J., Feldman H. A., Greaves I. A. Toxicity of intratracheally instilled cotton dust, cellulose, and endotoxin. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Jul;142(1):184–192. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/142.1.184. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mink J. T., Gerrard J. W., Cockcroft D. W., Cotton D. J., Dosman J. A. Increased bronchial reactivity to inhaled histamine in nonsmoking grain workers with normal lung function. Chest. 1980 Jan;77(1):28–31. doi: 10.1378/chest.77.1.28. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Minshall E. M., Leung D. Y., Martin R. J., Song Y. L., Cameron L., Ernst P., Hamid Q. Eosinophil-associated TGF-beta1 mRNA expression and airways fibrosis in bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1997 Sep;17(3):326–333. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.17.3.2733. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nakamura H., Yoshimura K., Jaffe H. A., Crystal R. G. Interleukin-8 gene expression in human bronchial epithelial cells. J Biol Chem. 1991 Oct 15;266(29):19611–19617. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Odhiambo J. A., Ng'ang'a L. W., Mungai M. W., Gicheha C. M., Nyamwaya J. K., Karimi F., Macklem P. T., Becklake M. R. Urban-rural differences in questionnaire-derived markers of asthma in Kenyan school children. Eur Respir J. 1998 Nov;12(5):1105–1112. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.12051105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Olenchock S. A., Lewis D. M., Mull J. C. Composition of extracts of airborne grain dusts: lectins and lymphocyte mitogens. Environ Health Perspect. 1986 Apr;66:119–123. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8666119. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Paggiaro P. L., Loi A. M., Rossi O., Ferrante B., Pardi F., Roselli M. G., Baschieri L. Follow-up study of patients with respiratory disease due to toluene diisocyanate (TDI). Clin Allergy. 1984 Sep;14(5):463–469. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1984.tb02230.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Paggiaro P., Bacci E., Paoletti P., Bernard P., Dente F. L., Marchetti G., Talini D., Menconi G. F., Giuntini C. Bronchoalveolar lavage and morphology of the airways after cessation of exposure in asthmatic subjects sensitized to toluene diisocyanate. Chest. 1990 Sep;98(3):536–542. doi: 10.1378/chest.98.3.536. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Phan S. H., Gharaee-Kermani M., Wolber F., Ryan U. S. Stimulation of rat endothelial cell transforming growth factor-beta production by bleomycin. J Clin Invest. 1991 Jan;87(1):148–154. doi: 10.1172/JCI114964. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pomrehn P. R., Wallace R. B., Burmeister L. F. Ischemic heart disease mortality in Iowa farmers. The influence of life-style. JAMA. 1982 Sep 3;248(9):1073–1076. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rask-Andersen A., Malmberg P., Lundholm M. Endotoxin levels in farming: absence of symptoms despite high exposure levels. Br J Ind Med. 1989 Jun;46(6):412–416. doi: 10.1136/oem.46.6.412. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ray D., Abel R., Selvaraj K. G. A 5-yr prospective epidemiological study of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in rural south India. Indian J Med Res. 1995 Jun;101:238–244. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Redl H., Schlag G., Ceska M., Davies J., Buurman W. A. Interleukin-8 release in baboon septicemia is partially dependent on tumor necrosis factor. J Infect Dis. 1993 Jun;167(6):1464–1466. doi: 10.1093/infdis/167.6.1464. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Redline S., Tager I. B., Segal M. R., Gold D., Speizer F. E., Weiss S. T. The relationship between longitudinal change in pulmonary function and nonspecific airway responsiveness in children and young adults. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 Jul;140(1):179–184. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/140.1.179. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Robinson D., Hamid Q., Ying S., Bentley A., Assoufi B., Durham S., Kay A. B. Prednisolone treatment in asthma is associated with modulation of bronchoalveolar lavage cell interleukin-4, interleukin-5, and interferon-gamma cytokine gene expression. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Aug;148(2):401–406. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/148.2.401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Roche W. R., Beasley R., Williams J. H., Holgate S. T. Subepithelial fibrosis in the bronchi of asthmatics. Lancet. 1989 Mar 11;1(8637):520–524. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(89)90067-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rose C. E., Jr, Juliano C. A., Tracey D. E., Yoshimura T., Fu S. M. Role of interleukin-1 in endotoxin-induced lung injury in the rat. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1994 Feb;10(2):214–221. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.10.2.8110477. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rylander R., Bake B., Fischer J. J., Helander I. M. Pulmonary function and symptoms after inhalation of endotoxin. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 Oct;140(4):981–986. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/140.4.981. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rylander R., Haglind P., Lundholm M. Endotoxin in cotton dust and respiratory function decrement among cotton workers in an experimental cardroom. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1985 Feb;131(2):209–213. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1985.131.2.209. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Samet J. M., Bishop Y., Speizer F. E., Spengler J. D., Ferris B. G., Jr The relationship between air pollution and emergency room visits in an industrial community. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 1981 Mar;31(3):236–240. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1981.10465214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Samet J. M., Utell M. J. The environment and the lung. Changing perspectives. JAMA. 1991 Aug 7;266(5):670–675. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schembri D. A., Crockett A. J., Alpers J. H., Latimer K. M. Bronchial hyperresponsiveness in two populations of South Australian rural schoolchildren. Med J Aust. 1990 Jun 4;152(11):578–582. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1990.tb125387.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schwartz D. A., Donham K. J., Olenchock S. A., Popendorf W. J., Van Fossen D. S., Burmeister L. F., Merchant J. A. Determinants of longitudinal changes in spirometric function among swine confinement operators and farmers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Jan;151(1):47–53. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.151.1.7812571. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schwartz D. A. Grain dust, endotoxin, and airflow obstruction. Chest. 1996 Mar;109(3 Suppl):57S–63S. doi: 10.1378/chest.109.3_supplement.57s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schwartz D. A., Landas S. K., Lassise D. L., Burmeister L. F., Hunninghake G. W., Merchant J. A. Airway injury in swine confinement workers. Ann Intern Med. 1992 Apr 15;116(8):630–635. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-116-8-630. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schwartz D. A., Thorne P. S., Jagielo P. J., White G. E., Bleuer S. A., Frees K. L. Endotoxin responsiveness and grain dust-induced inflammation in the lower respiratory tract. Am J Physiol. 1994 Nov;267(5 Pt 1):L609–L617. doi: 10.1152/ajplung.1994.267.5.L609. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schwartz D. A., Thorne P. S., Yagla S. J., Burmeister L. F., Olenchock S. A., Watt J. L., Quinn T. J. The role of endotoxin in grain dust-induced lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Aug;152(2):603–608. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.152.2.7633714. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Senthilselvan A., Chen Y., Dosman J. A. Predictors of asthma and wheezing in adults. Grain farming, sex, and smoking. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Sep;148(3):667–670. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/148.3.667. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Skea D., Broder I. Methanol extract of grain dust shows complement fixing activity and other characteristics similar to tannic acid. Environ Health Perspect. 1986 Apr;66:155–158. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8666155. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Speizer F. E. Asthma and persistent wheeze in the Harvard Six Cities Study. Chest. 1990 Nov;98(5 Suppl):191S–195S. doi: 10.1378/chest.98.5_supplement.191s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Standiford T. J., Strieter R. M., Lukacs N. W., Kunkel S. L. Neutralization of IL-10 increases lethality in endotoxemia. Cooperative effects of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 and tumor necrosis factor. J Immunol. 1995 Aug 15;155(4):2222–2229. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sterling T. D., Weinkam J. J. Smoking patterns by occupation, industry, sex, and race. Arch Environ Health. 1978 Nov-Dec;33(6):313–317. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1978.10667354. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tabona M., Chan-Yeung M., Enarson D., MacLean L., Dorken E., Schulzer M. Host factors affecting longitudinal decline in lung spirometry among grain elevator workers. Chest. 1984 Jun;85(6):782–786. doi: 10.1378/chest.85.6.782. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Thelin A., Tegler O., Rylander R. Lung reactions during poultry handling related to dust and bacterial endotoxin levels. Eur J Respir Dis. 1984 May;65(4):266–271. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Van Niekerk C. H., Weinberg E. G., Shore S. C., Heese H. V., Van Schalkwyk J. Prevalence of asthma: a comparative study of urban and rural Xhosa children. Clin Allergy. 1979 Jul;9(4):319–314. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1979.tb02489.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Vogelzang P. F., van der Gulden J. W., Folgering H., van Schayck C. P. Longitudinal changes in lung function associated with aspects of swine-confinement exposure. J Occup Environ Med. 1998 Dec;40(12):1048–1052. doi: 10.1097/00043764-199812000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Von Essen S. G., O'Neill D. P., Robbins R. A., Rennard S. I. Neutrophil chemotaxis to extracts of grain plant components. Am J Ind Med. 1994 Jan;25(1):85–88. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700250122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Von Essen S. G., Robbins R. A., Thompson A. B., Ertl R. F., Linder J., Rennard S. Mechanisms of neutrophil recruitment to the lung by grain dust exposure. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988 Oct;138(4):921–927. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/138.4.921. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- WEINER A. Bronchial asthma due to the organic phosphate insecticides; a case report. Ann Allergy. 1961 Apr;19:397–401. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wardlaw A. J., Dunnette S., Gleich G. J., Collins J. V., Kay A. B. Eosinophils and mast cells in bronchoalveolar lavage in subjects with mild asthma. Relationship to bronchial hyperreactivity. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988 Jan;137(1):62–69. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/137.1.62. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Weiss K. B., Wagener D. K. Changing patterns of asthma mortality. Identifying target populations at high risk. JAMA. 1990 Oct 3;264(13):1683–1687. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Weiss S. T., Tosteson T. D., Segal M. R., Tager I. B., Redline S., Speizer F. E. Effects of asthma on pulmonary function in children. A longitudinal population-based study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Jan;145(1):58–64. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/145.1.58. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wolpe S. D., Sherry B., Juers D., Davatelis G., Yurt R. W., Cerami A. Identification and characterization of macrophage inflammatory protein 2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Jan;86(2):612–616. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.2.612. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zejda J. E., McDuffie H. H., Dosman J. A. Epidemiology of health and safety risks in agriculture and related industries. Practical applications for rural physicians. West J Med. 1993 Jan;158(1):56–63. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhiping W., Malmberg P., Larsson B. M., Larsson K., Larsson L., Saraf A. Exposure to bacteria in swine-house dust and acute inflammatory reactions in humans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Nov;154(5):1261–1266. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.154.5.8912733. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- doPico G. A., Flaherty D., Bhansali P., Chavaje N. Grain fever syndrome induced by inhalation of airborne grain dust. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1982 May;69(5):435–443. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(82)90118-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- doPico G. A., Jacobs S., Flaherty D., Rankin J. Pulmonary reaction to durum wheat; a constituent of grain dust. Chest. 1982 Jan;81(1):55–61. doi: 10.1378/chest.81.1.55. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]