Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Environmental Health Perspectives logoLink to Environmental Health Perspectives
. 1983 Jan;47:115–140. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8347115

Formation and fate of gaseous and particulate mutagens and carcinogens in real and simulated atmospheres.

J N Pitts Jr
PMCID: PMC1569386  PMID: 6337822

Abstract

The growing use of coal for heating and electric power generation and diesel engines in light duty motor vehicles will increase not only the existing atmospheric concentrations of criteria pollutants such as NO2, SO2, O3 and fine particulates, but also the concentrations of a number of highly reactive gaseous copollutants such as HONO, HONO2, PAN and the nitrate radical, NO3. These gaseous noncriteria pollutants are of interest not only because of their roles in the chemistry of the "clean" and polluted troposphere, including "acid rain," but also because they may pose health risks disproportionate to their relatively low ambient concentrations, and through complex heterogeneous reactions, they may serve as precursors or catalysts in the formation of "nonclassical" particulate mutagens and carcinogens such as certain nitroarenes associated with combustion generated particulate polycyclic organic matter (POM). Results of research efforts to establish current ambient levels of these noncriteria pollutants and to develop an understanding of their sources, formation and sinks are reported here. First, long pathlength (greater than or equal to 1 km) infrared and UV-visible spectroscopic studies of ambient levels of gaseous HONO, NO3, HONO2, PAN, HCHO and HCOOH in southern California atmospheres are described, and data given on their ambient concentrations. Second, an integrated chemical/microbiological investigation is described. It is directed toward identifying the nature of direct-acting mutagens found in extracts of diesel and ambient POM, as well as those formed upon exposure of environmentally relevant PAH to simulated natural and polluted atmospheres. The identification of certain of these mutagens, including a newly identified class of mutagenic PAH-lactones is discussed, along with the mechanisms of their formation and fate in the natural and polluted troposphere.

Full text

PDF
115

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Ames B. N., Durston W. E., Yamasaki E., Lee F. D. Carcinogens are mutagens: a simple test system combining liver homogenates for activation and bacteria for detection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973 Aug;70(8):2281–2285. doi: 10.1073/pnas.70.8.2281. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Ames B. N., Mccann J., Yamasaki E. Methods for detecting carcinogens and mutagens with the Salmonella/mammalian-microsome mutagenicity test. Mutat Res. 1975 Dec;31(6):347–364. doi: 10.1016/0165-1161(75)90046-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Amin S., Hecht S. S., LaVoie E., Hoffmann D. Synthesis and mutagenicity of 5,11-dimethylchrysene and some methyl-oxidized derivatives of 5-methylchrysene. J Med Chem. 1979 Nov;22(11):1336–1340. doi: 10.1021/jm00197a011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Asahina S., Andrea J., Carmel A., Arnold E., Bishop Y., Joshi S., Coffin D., Epstein S. S. Carcinogenicity of organic fractions of particulate pollutants collected in New York City and administered subcutaneously to infant mice. Cancer Res. 1972 Oct;32(10):2263–2268. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Belser W. L., Jr, Shaffer S. D., Bliss R. D., Hynds P. M., Yamamoto L., Pitts J. N., Jr, Winer J. A. A standardized procedure for quantification of the Ames Salmonella/mammalian-microsome mutagenicity test. Environ Mutagen. 1981;3(2):123–139. doi: 10.1002/em.2860030204. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chang R. L., Wood A. W., Levin W., Mah H. D., Thakker D. R., Jerina D. M., Conney A. H. Differences in mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of (+)- and (-)-benzo[a]pyrene 4,5-oxide: a synergistic interaction of enantiomers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Sep;76(9):4280–4284. doi: 10.1073/pnas.76.9.4280. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chrisp C. E., Fisher G. L., Lammert J. E. Mutagenicity of filtrates from respirable coal fly ash. Science. 1978 Jan 6;199(4324):73–75. doi: 10.1126/science.199.4324.73. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Chrisp C. E., Fisher G. L. Mutagenicity of airborne particles. Mutat Res. 1980 Sep;76(2):143–164. doi: 10.1016/0165-1110(80)90007-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. FALK H. L., KOTIN P., THOMAS M. I. Production of skin tumors in mice with oxidation products of aliphatic hydrocarbons. Cancer. 1956 Sep-Oct;9(5):905–909. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(195609/10)9:5<905::aid-cncr2820090505>3.0.co;2-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. FALK H. L., MARKUL I., KOTIN P. Aromatic hydrocarbons. IV. Their fate following emission into the atmosphere and experimental exposure to washed air and synthetic smog. AMA Arch Ind Health. 1956 Jan;13(1):13–17. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Finlayson B. J., Pitts J. N., Jr Photochemistry of the polluted troposphere. Science. 1976 Apr 9;192(4235):111–119. doi: 10.1126/science.192.4235.111. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Fox M. A., Olive S. Photooxidation of anthracene on atmospheric particulate matter. Science. 1979 Aug 10;205(4406):582–583. doi: 10.1126/science.205.4406.582. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Freeman A. E., Price P. J., Bryan R. J., Gordon R. J., Gilden R. V., Kelloff G. J., Huebner R. J. Transformation of rat and hamster embryo cells by extracts of city smog. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1971 Feb;68(2):445–449. doi: 10.1073/pnas.68.2.445. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Goodall C. M., Kennedy T. H. Carcinogenicity of dimethylnitramine in NZR rats in NZO mice. Cancer Lett. 1976 May;1(5):295–298. doi: 10.1016/s0304-3835(75)97975-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Gordon R. J., Bryan R. J., Rhim J. S., Demoise C., Wolford R. G., Freeman A. E., Huebner R. J. Transformation of rat and mouse embryo cells by a new class of carcinogenic compounds isolated from particles in city air. Int J Cancer. 1973 Jul 15;12(1):223–232. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910120123. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. HUEPER W. C., KOTIN P., TABOR E. C., PAYNE W. W., FALK H., SAWICKI E. Carcinogenic bioassays on air pollutants. Arch Pathol. 1962 Aug;74:89–116. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Jäger J., Hanus V. Reaction of solid carrier-adsorbed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with gaseous low-concentrated nitrogen dioxide. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol. 1980;24(1):1–15. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. KOTIN P., FALK H. L., MADER P., THOMAS M. Aromatic hydrocarbons. I. Presence in the Los Angeles atmosphere and the carcinogenicity of atmospheric extracts. AMA Arch Ind Hyg Occup Med. 1954 Feb;9(2):153–163. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. KOTIN P., FALK H. L., McCAMMON C. J., 3rd The experimental induction of pulmonary tumors and changes in the respiratory epithelium in C57BL mice following their exposure to an atmosphere of ozonized gasoline. Cancer. 1958 May-Jun;11(3):473–481. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(195805/06)11:3<473::aid-cncr2820110307>3.0.co;2-w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Kertész-Sáringer M., Mészaros E., Várkonyi T. On the size distribution of benzo(a)pyrene containing particles in urban air. Atmos Environ. 1971 Jun;5(6):429–431. doi: 10.1016/0004-6981(71)90146-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Korfmacher W. A., Natusch D. F., Taylor D. R., Mamantov G., Wehry E. L. Oxidative transformations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons adsorbed on coal fly ash. Science. 1980 Feb 15;207(4432):763–765. doi: 10.1126/science.7352284. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Levin W., Wood A. W., Yagi H., Dansette P. M., Jerina D. M., Conney A. H. Carcinogenicity of benzo[a]pyrene 4,5-, 7,8-, and 9,10-oxides on mouse skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1976 Jan;73(1):243–247. doi: 10.1073/pnas.73.1.243. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Lunde G., Bjorseth A. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in long-range transported aerosols. Nature. 1977 Aug 11;268(5620):518–519. doi: 10.1038/268518a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Löfroth G., Hefner E., Alfheim I., Møoller M. Mutagenic activity in photocopies. Science. 1980 Aug 29;209(4460):1037–1039. doi: 10.1126/science.6996094. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. McCoy E. A., Rosenkranz H. S. Activation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to mutagens by singlet oxygen: an enhancing effect of atmospheric pollutants? Cancer Lett. 1980 Mar;9(1):35–42. doi: 10.1016/0304-3835(80)90137-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Mermelstein R., Kiriazides D. K., Butler M., McCoy E. C., Rosenkranz H. S. The extraordinary mutagenicity of nitropyrenes in bacteria. Mutat Res. 1981 Jul;89(3):187–196. doi: 10.1016/0165-1218(81)90236-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Natusch D. F., Wallace J. R. Urban aerosol toxicity: the influence of particle size. Science. 1974 Nov 22;186(4165):695–699. doi: 10.1126/science.186.4165.695. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Nielsen T., Ramdahl T., Bjørseth A. The fate of airborne polycyclic organic matter. Environ Health Perspect. 1983 Jan;47:103–114. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8347103. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Patel J. R., Politzer I. R., Griffin G. W., Laseter J. L. Mass spectra of the oxygenated products generated from phenanthrene under simulated environmental conditions. Biomed Mass Spectrom. 1978 Dec;5(12):664–670. doi: 10.1002/bms.1200051206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Pitts J. N., Jr, Harger W., Lokensgard D. M., Fitz D. R., Scorziell G. M., Mejia V. Diurnal variations in the mutagenicity of airborne particulate organic matter in California's south coast air basin. Mutat Res. 1982 Apr;104(1-3):35–41. doi: 10.1016/0165-7992(82)90117-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Pitts J. N., Jr, Lokensgard D. M., Harger W., Fisher T. S., Mejia V., Schuler J. J., Scorziell G. M., Katzenstein Y. A. Mutagens in diesel exhaust particulate. Identification and direct activities of 6-nitrobenzo[a]pyrene, 9-nitroanthracene, 1-nitropyrene and 5h-phenanthro[4,5-bcd]pyran-5-one. Mutat Res. 1982 Mar;103(3-6):241–249. doi: 10.1016/0165-7992(82)90049-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Pitts J. N., Jr, Lokensgard D. M., Ripley P. S., VAN Cauwenberghe K. A., VAN Vaeck L., Shaffer S. D., Thill A. J., Belser W. L., Jr "Atmospheric" Epoxidation of Benzo[a]pyrene by Ozone: Formation of the Metabolite Benzo[a]pyrene-4,5-Oxide. Science. 1980 Dec 19;210(4476):1347–1349. doi: 10.1126/science.210.4476.1347. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Pitts J. N., Jr, Van Cauwenberghe K. A., Grosjean D., Schmid J. P., Fitz D. R., Belser W. L., Knudson G. P., Hynds P. M. Atmospheric reactions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: facile formation of mutagenic nitro derivatives. Science. 1978 Nov 3;202(4367):515–519. doi: 10.1126/science.705341. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Rigdon R. H., Neal J. Tumors in mice induced by air particulate matter from a petrochemical industrial area. Tex Rep Biol Med. 1971 Spring;29(1):109–123. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Rosenkranz H. S., McCoy E. C., Mermelstein R., Speck W. T. A cautionary note the use of nitroreductase-deficient strains of Salmonella typhimurium for the detection of nitroarenes as mutagens in complex mixtures including diesel exhausts. Mutat Res. 1981 Mar;91(2):103–105. doi: 10.1016/0165-7992(81)90080-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Rosenkranz H. S., McCoy E. C., Sanders D. R., Butler M., Kiriazides D. K., Mermelstein R. Nitropyrenes: isolation, identificaton, and reduction of mutagenic impurities in carbon black and toners. Science. 1980 Aug 29;209(4460):1039–1043. doi: 10.1126/science.6996095. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Rosenkranz H. S., Poirier L. A. Evaluation of the mutagenicity and DNA-modifying activity of carcinogens and noncarcinogens in microbial systems. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1979 Apr;62(4):873–892. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Schuetzle D., Lee F. S., Prater T. J. The identification of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) derivatives in mutagenic fractions of diesel particulate extracts. Int J Environ Anal Chem. 1981;9(2):93–144. doi: 10.1080/03067318108071903. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Shapley D. Nitrosamines: scientists on the trail of prime suspect in urban cancer. Science. 1976 Jan 23;191(4224):268–270. doi: 10.1126/science.191.4224.268. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Talcott R., Harger W. Airborne mutagens extracted from particles of respirable size. Mutat Res. 1980 Oct;79(2):177–180. doi: 10.1016/0165-1218(80)90087-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Talcott R., Wei E. Airborne mutagens bioassayed in Salmonella typhimurium. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1977 Feb;58(2):449–451. doi: 10.1093/jnci/58.2.449. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Tebbens B. D., Thomas J. F., Mukai M. Fate of arenes incorporated with airborne soot. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1966 Sep-Oct;27(5):415–422. doi: 10.1080/00028896609342446. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Tokiwa H., Nakagawa R., Ohnishi Y. Mutagenic assay of aromatic nitro compounds with Salmonella typhimurium. Mutat Res. 1981 Jul-Sep;91(4-5):321–325. doi: 10.1016/0165-7992(81)90008-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Tokiwa H., Takeyoshi H., Morita K., Takahashi K., Saruta N., Ohnishi Y. Detection of mutagenic activity in urban air pollutants [proceedings]. Mutat Res. 1976 Oct;38(5):351–351. doi: 10.1016/0165-1161(76)90184-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. WYNDER E. L., HOFFMANN D. SOME LABORATORY AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF AIR POLLUTION CARCINOGENESIS. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 1965 Apr;15:155–159. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1965.10468351. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Wislocki P. G., Wood A. W., Chang R. L., Levin W., Yagi H., Hernandez O., Dansette P. M., Herina D. M., Conney A. H. Mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of benzo(a)pyrene arene oxides, phenols, quinones, and dihydrodiols in bacterial and mammalian cells. Cancer Res. 1976 Sep;36(9 PT1):3350–3357. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Environmental Health Perspectives are provided here courtesy of National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

RESOURCES