Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Environmental Health Perspectives logoLink to Environmental Health Perspectives
. 2000 Aug;108(Suppl 4):635–641. doi: 10.1289/ehp.00108s4635

Radon and lung cancer risk: taking stock at the millenium.

J M Samet 1, G R Eradze 1
PMCID: PMC1637678  PMID: 10931781

Abstract

Radon is a well-established human carcinogen for which extensive data are available, extending into the range of exposures experienced by the general population. Mounting epidemiologic evidence on radon and lung cancer risk, now available from more than 20 different studies of underground miners and complementary laboratory findings, indicates that risks are linear in exposure without threshold. Radon is also a ubiquitous indoor air pollutant in homes, and risk projections imply that radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking. Recommended control strategies in the United States and other countries, which include testing of most homes and mitigation of those exceeding guideline levels, have been controversial. Further research is needed, drawing on molecular and cellular approaches and continuing the follow-up of the underground miner cohorts, and scientists should work toward constructing mechanistically based models that combine epidemiologic and experimental data to yield risk estimates with enhanced certainty.

Full text

PDF
635

Images in this article

636Figure 1
on p.636
636Figure 2
on p.636

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Ahmad N., Matiullah, Khatibeh A. J. Comparative studies of indoor radon concentration levels in Jordan using CR-39 based bag and cup dosimeters. Health Phys. 1998 Jul;75(1):60–62. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199807000-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Alavanja M. C., Lubin J. H., Mahaffey J. A., Brownson R. C. Residential radon exposure and risk of lung cancer in Missouri. Am J Public Health. 1999 Jul;89(7):1042–1048. doi: 10.2105/ajph.89.7.1042. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Archer V. E., Renzetti A. D., Doggett R. S., Jarvis J. Q., Colby T. V. Chronic diffuse interstitial fibrosis of the lung in uranium miners. J Occup Environ Med. 1998 May;40(5):460–474. doi: 10.1097/00043764-199805000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Ausoodkij B., Polpong P., Bovornkitti S. Indoor radon in Thailand: a study with particular reference to its sources. J Med Assoc Thai. 1996 Aug;79(8):519–525. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bochicchio F., Campos Venuti G., Nuccetelli C., Piermattei S., Risica S., Tommasino L., Torri G. Results of the representative Italian national survey on radon indoors. Health Phys. 1996 Nov;71(5):741–748. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199611000-00016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Crowell R. E., Belinsky S. A. Genetic changes in lung cancer: potential biomarkers for early detection and prevention. J Lab Clin Med. 1997 Dec;130(6):550–557. doi: 10.1016/s0022-2143(97)90104-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Eremeeva T. N. Radon i produkty ego raspada v vozdukhe pomeshchenii detskikh doshkol'nykh uchrezhdenii g. Serpukhova. Med Tr Prom Ekol. 1996;(9):13–17. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Etherington D. J., Pheby D. F., Bray F. I. An ecological study of cancer incidence and radon levels in South West England. Eur J Cancer. 1996 Jun;32A(7):1189–1197. doi: 10.1016/0959-8049(96)00060-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Field R. W., Kross B. C. Iowa survey of waterborne 222Rn concentrations in private wells. Health Phys. 1998 Feb;74(2):249–252. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199802000-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Hornung R. W., Meinhardt T. J. Quantitative risk assessment of lung cancer in U.S. uranium miners. Health Phys. 1987 Apr;52(4):417–430. doi: 10.1097/00004032-198704000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Jedrychowski W., Flak E., Wesolowski J., Liu K. S. Relation between residential radon concentrations and housing characteristics. The Cracow Study. Cent Eur J Public Health. 1995 Aug;3(3):158–160. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Kahn P. A grisly archive of key cancer data. Science. 1993 Jan 22;259(5094):448–451. doi: 10.1126/science.8424163. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Laurer G. R., Gang Q. T., Lubin J. H., Jun-Yao L., Kan C. S., Xiang Y. S., Jian C. Z., Yi H., De G. W., Blot W. J. Skeletal 210Pb levels and lung cancer among radon-exposed tin miners in southern China. Health Phys. 1993 Mar;64(3):253–259. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199303000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Lubin J. H., Boice J. D., Jr, Edling C., Hornung R. W., Howe G., Kunz E., Kusiak R. A., Morrison H. I., Radford E. P., Samet J. M. Radon-exposed underground miners and inverse dose-rate (protraction enhancement) effects. Health Phys. 1995 Oct;69(4):494–500. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199510000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Lubin J. H., Boice J. D., Jr Lung cancer risk from residential radon: meta-analysis of eight epidemiologic studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1997 Jan 1;89(1):49–57. doi: 10.1093/jnci/89.1.49. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Lubin J. H., Boice J. D., Jr, Samet J. M. Errors in exposure assessment, statistical power and the interpretation of residential radon studies. Radiat Res. 1995 Dec;144(3):329–341. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Lubin J. H., Samet J. M., Weinberg C. Design issues in epidemiologic studies of indoor exposure to Rn and risk of lung cancer. Health Phys. 1990 Dec;59(6):807–817. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199012000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Lubin J. H., Tomásek L., Edling C., Hornung R. W., Howe G., Kunz E., Kusiak R. A., Morrison H. I., Radford E. P., Samet J. M. Estimating lung cancer mortality from residential radon using data for low exposures of miners. Radiat Res. 1997 Feb;147(2):126–134. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Luebeck E. G., Curtis S. B., Cross F. T., Moolgavkar S. H. Two-stage model of radon-induced malignant lung tumors in rats: effects of cell killing. Radiat Res. 1996 Feb;145(2):163–173. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Luebeck E. G., Heidenreich W. F., Hazelton W. D., Paretzke H. G., Moolgavkar S. H. Biologically based analysis of the data for the Colorado uranium miners cohort: age, dose and dose-rate effects. Radiat Res. 1999 Oct;152(4):339–351. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Miller R. C., Randers-Pehrson G., Geard C. R., Hall E. J., Brenner D. J. The oncogenic transforming potential of the passage of single alpha particles through mammalian cell nuclei. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 Jan 5;96(1):19–22. doi: 10.1073/pnas.96.1.19. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Moolgavkar S. H., Luebeck E. G., Krewski D., Zielinski J. M. Radon, cigarette smoke, and lung cancer: a re-analysis of the Colorado Plateau uranium miners' data. Epidemiology. 1993 May;4(3):204–217. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Neft R. E., Crowell R. E., Gilliland F. D., Murphy M. M., Lane J. L., Harms H., Coons T., Heaphy E., Belinsky S. A., Lechner J. F. Frequency of trisomy 20 in nonmalignant bronchial epithelium from lung cancer patients and cancer-free former uranium miners and smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1998 Nov;7(11):1051–1054. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Otwoma D., Mustapha A. O. Measurement of 222Rn concentration in Kenyan groundwater. Health Phys. 1998 Jan;74(1):91–95. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199801000-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Paulus L. R., Gesell T. F., Brey R. R. An evaluation of 222Rn concentrations in Idaho groundwater. Health Phys. 1998 Feb;74(2):237–241. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199802000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Richter E. D., Neeman E., Fischer I., Berdugo M., Westin J. B., Kleinstern J., Margaliot M. Radon exposures in a Jerusalem public school. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Dec;105 (Suppl 6):1411–1416. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105s61411. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Samet J. M. Epidemiologic studies of ionizing radiation and cancer: past successes and future challenges. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Jun;105 (Suppl 4):883–889. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105s4883. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Samet J. M. Radon and lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1989 May 10;81(10):745–757. doi: 10.1093/jnci/81.10.745. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Samet J. M., Stolwijk J., Rose S. L. Summary: International workshop on residential Rn epidemiology. Health Phys. 1991 Feb;60(2):223–227. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199102000-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Samuelsson C. Retrospective determination of radon in houses. Nature. 1988 Jul 28;334(6180):338–340. doi: 10.1038/334338a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Stram D. O., Langholz B., Huberman M., Thomas D. C. Correcting for exposure measurement error in a reanalysis of lung cancer mortality for the Colorado Plateau Uranium Miners cohort. Health Phys. 1999 Sep;77(3):265–275. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199909000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Thomas D., Stram D., Dwyer J. Exposure measurement error: influence on exposure-disease. Relationships and methods of correction. Annu Rev Public Health. 1993;14:69–93. doi: 10.1146/annurev.pu.14.050193.000441. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Wu L. J., Randers-Pehrson G., Xu A., Waldren C. A., Geard C. R., Yu Z., Hei T. K. Targeted cytoplasmic irradiation with alpha particles induces mutations in mammalian cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 Apr 27;96(9):4959–4964. doi: 10.1073/pnas.96.9.4959. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Yonehara H., Aoyama T., Radford E. P., Kato H., Sakanoue M. Radon concentrations in residential housing in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Health Phys. 1995 May;68(5):683–688. doi: 10.1097/00004032-199505000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Yu K. N., Young E. C., Stokes M. J., Lo C. H. A survey of radon properties in underground shopping centers in Hong Kong. Appl Radiat Isot. 1997 Jun;48(6):863–866. doi: 10.1016/s0969-8043(96)00282-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Zykova A. S., Voronina T. F., Pakulo A. G., Vereiko S. P. Soderzhanie radona v zhilykh pomeshcheniiakh g. Lermontova i dozy oblucheniia naseleniia. Gig Sanit. 1998 Mar-Apr;(2):32–33. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Environmental Health Perspectives are provided here courtesy of National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

RESOURCES