Skip to main content
Environmental Health Perspectives logoLink to Environmental Health Perspectives
. 2000 May;108(5):387–392. doi: 10.1289/ehp.00108387

The PBDEs: an emerging environmental challenge and another reason for breast-milk monitoring programs.

K Hooper 1, T A McDonald 1
PMCID: PMC1638037  PMID: 10811563

Abstract

Levels of the polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a class of widely used flame retardants, appear to be rising rapidly in human tissues, as evidenced by studies of human breast milk. The case of the PBDEs illustrates the value of breast-milk monitoring programs in identifying important emerging pollutants, and highlights why such monitoring programs are needed in the United States. A review of the use, occurrence, and toxicity of PBDEs indicates many parallels between some PBDEs, PCBs, and other polyhalogenated persistent organic pollutants, and suggests that the PBDEs may be a significant environmental challenge in the future.

Full text

PDF
387

Images in this article

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Albers J. M., Kreis I. A., Liem A. K., van Zoonen P. Factors that influence the level of contamination of human milk with poly-chlorinated organic compounds. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1996 Feb;30(2):285–291. doi: 10.1007/BF00215810. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Bahn A. K., Mills J. L., Snyder P. J., Gann P. H., Houten L., Bialik O., Hollmann L., Utiger R. D. Hypothyroidism in workers exposed to polybrominated biphenyls. N Engl J Med. 1980 Jan 3;302(1):31–33. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198001033020105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Beck H., Dross A., Mathar W. PCDD and PCDF exposure and levels in humans in Germany. Environ Health Perspect. 1994 Jan;102 (Suppl 1):173–185. doi: 10.1289/ehp.94102s1173. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Birnbaum L. S. The mechanism of dioxin toxicity: relationship to risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect. 1994 Nov;102 (Suppl 9):157–167. doi: 10.1289/ehp.94102s9157. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Carlson G. P. Induction of xenobiotic metabolism in rats by brominated diphenyl ethers administered for 90 days. Toxicol Lett. 1980 Aug;6(3):207–212. doi: 10.1016/0378-4274(80)90193-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Carlson G. P. Induction of xenobiotic metabolism in rats by short-term administration of brominated diphenyl ethers. Toxicol Lett. 1980 Jan;5(1):19–25. doi: 10.1016/0378-4274(80)90143-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chen Y. C., Yu M. L., Rogan W. J., Gladen B. C., Hsu C. C. A 6-year follow-up of behavior and activity disorders in the Taiwan Yu-cheng children. Am J Public Health. 1994 Mar;84(3):415–421. doi: 10.2105/ajph.84.3.415. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. DeVito M. J., Birnbaum L. S., Farland W. H., Gasiewicz T. A. Comparisons of estimated human body burdens of dioxinlike chemicals and TCDD body burdens in experimentally exposed animals. Environ Health Perspect. 1995 Sep;103(9):820–831. doi: 10.1289/ehp.95103820. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Flesch-Janys D., Becher H., Gurn P., Jung D., Konietzko J., Manz A., Päpke O. Elimination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in occupationally exposed persons. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1996 Mar;47(4):363–378. doi: 10.1080/009841096161708. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Fowles J. R., Fairbrother A., Baecher-Steppan L., Kerkvliet N. I. Immunologic and endocrine effects of the flame-retardant pentabromodiphenyl ether (DE-71) in C57BL/6J mice. Toxicology. 1994 Jan 26;86(1-2):49–61. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(94)90052-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Gladen B. C., Rogan W. J. DDE and shortened duration of lactation in a northern Mexican town. Am J Public Health. 1995 Apr;85(4):504–508. doi: 10.2105/ajph.85.4.504. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Grassman J. A., Masten S. A., Walker N. J., Lucier G. W. Animal models of human response to dioxins. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Apr;106 (Suppl 2):761–775. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106761. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Hanberg A., Ståhlberg M., Georgellis A., de Wit C., Ahlborg U. G. Swedish dioxin survey: evaluation of the H-4-II E bioassay for screening environmental samples for dioxin-like enzyme induction. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1991 Dec;69(6):442–449. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1991.tb01327.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Hardell L., Lindström G., van Bavel B., Wingfors H., Sundelin E., Liljegren G. Concentrations of the flame retardant 2,2',4,4'-tetrabrominated diphenyl ether in human adipose tissue in Swedish persons and the risk for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Oncol Res. 1998;10(8):429–432. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Harper N., Howie L., Connor K., Dickerson R., Safe S. Immunosuppressive effects of highly chlorinated biphenyls and diphenyl ethers on T-cell dependent and independent antigens in mice. Toxicology. 1993 Dec 31;85(2-3):123–135. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(93)90037-s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Helleday T., Tuominen K. L., Bergman A., Jenssen D. Brominated flame retardants induce intragenic recombination in mammalian cells. Mutat Res. 1999 Feb 19;439(2):137–147. doi: 10.1016/s1383-5718(98)00186-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Henderson A. K., Rosen D., Miller G. L., Figgs L. W., Zahm S. H., Sieber S. M., Rothman N., Humphrey H. E., Sinks T. Breast cancer among women exposed to polybrominated biphenyls. Epidemiology. 1995 Sep;6(5):544–546. doi: 10.1097/00001648-199509000-00014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hoque A., Sigurdson A. J., Burau K. D., Humphrey H. E., Hess K. R., Sweeney A. M. Cancer among a Michigan cohort exposed to polybrominated biphenyls in 1973. Epidemiology. 1998 Jul;9(4):373–378. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Howie L., Dickerson R., Davis D., Safe S. Immunosuppressive and monooxygenase induction activities of polychlorinated diphenyl ether congeners in C57BL/6N mice: quantitative structure-activity relationships. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1990 Sep 1;105(2):254–263. doi: 10.1016/0041-008x(90)90187-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Huisman M., Koopman-Esseboom C., Fidler V., Hadders-Algra M., van der Paauw C. G., Tuinstra L. G., Weisglas-Kuperus N., Sauer P. J., Touwen B. C., Boersma E. R. Perinatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins and its effect on neonatal neurological development. Early Hum Dev. 1995 Apr 14;41(2):111–127. doi: 10.1016/0378-3782(94)01611-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Jacobson J. L., Jacobson S. W. Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero. N Engl J Med. 1996 Sep 12;335(11):783–789. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199609123351104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Kodavanti P. R., Ward T. R., McKinney J. D., Waller C. L., Tilson H. A. Increased [3H]phorbol ester binding in rat cerebellar granule cells and inhibition of 45Ca2+ sequestration in rat cerebellum by polychlorinated diphenyl ether congeners and analogs: structure-activity relationships. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1996 Jun;138(2):251–261. doi: 10.1006/taap.1996.0123. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Koppe J. G., Olie K., van Wijnen J. Placental transport of dioxins from mother to fetus. II. PCBs, dioxins and furans and vitamin K metabolism. Dev Pharmacol Ther. 1992;18(1-2):9–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Lanting C. I., Patandin S., Weisglas-Kuperus N., Touwen B. C., Boersma E. R. Breastfeeding and neurological outcome at 42 months. Acta Paediatr. 1998 Dec;87(12):1224–1229. doi: 10.1080/080352598750030870. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Lindström G., Wingfors H., Dam M., van Bavel B. Identification of 19 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas) from the Atlantic. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1999 Apr;36(3):355–363. doi: 10.1007/s002449900482. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Longnecker M. P., Rogan W. J., Lucier G. The human health effects of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and PCBS (polychlorinated biphenyls) and an overview of organochlorines in public health. Annu Rev Public Health. 1997;18:211–244. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.18.1.211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Masuda Y., Kagawa R., Kuroki H., Kuratsune M., Yoshimura T., Taki I., Kusuda M., Yamashita F., Hayashi M. Transfer of polychlorinated biphenyls from mothers to foetuses and infants. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 1978 Dec;16(6):543–546. doi: 10.1016/s0015-6264(78)80221-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. McKinney J. D., Waller C. L. Polychlorinated biphenyls as hormonally active structural analogues. Environ Health Perspect. 1994 Mar;102(3):290–297. doi: 10.1289/ehp.94102290. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Meironyté D., Norén K., Bergman A. Analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Swedish human milk. A time-related trend study, 1972-1997. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 1999 Nov 26;58(6):329–341. doi: 10.1080/009841099157197. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Meneses M., Wingfors H., Schuhmacher M., Domingo J. L., Lindström G., Van Bavel B. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers detected in human adipose tissue from Spain. Chemosphere. 1999 Dec;39(13):2271–2278. doi: 10.1016/s0045-6535(99)00150-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Michalek J. E., Pirkle J. L., Caudill S. P., Tripathi R. C., Patterson D. G., Jr, Needham L. L. Pharmacokinetics of TCDD in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand: 10-year follow-up. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1996 Feb 23;47(3):209–220. doi: 10.1080/009841096161744. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Michalek J. E., Tripathi R. C. Pharmacokinetics of TCDD in veterans of Operation Ranch Hand: 15-year follow-up. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 1999 Jul 23;57(6):369–378. doi: 10.1080/009841099157584. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Orn U., Klasson-Wehler E. Metabolism of 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether in rat and mouse. Xenobiotica. 1998 Feb;28(2):199–211. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Patandin S., Dagnelie P. C., Mulder P. G., Op de Coul E., van der Veen J. E., Weisglas-Kuperus N., Sauer P. J. Dietary exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins from infancy until adulthood: A comparison between breast-feeding, toddler, and long-term exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Jan;107(1):45–51. doi: 10.1289/ehp.9910745. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Pijnenburg A. M., Everts J. W., de Boer J., Boon J. P. Polybrominated biphenyl and diphenylether flame retardants: analysis, toxicity, and environmental occurrence. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 1995;141:1–26. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4612-2530-0_1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Päpke O. PCDD/PCDF: human background data for Germany, a 10-year experience. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Apr;106 (Suppl 2):723–731. doi: 10.1289/ehp.106-1533397. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Rosiak K. L., Seo B. W., Chu I., Francis B. M. Effects of maternal exposure to chlorinated diphenyl ethers on thyroid hormone concentrations in maternal and juvenile rats. J Environ Sci Health B. 1997 May;32(3):377–393. doi: 10.1080/03601239709373093. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Rosiak K., Li M. H., Degitz S. J., Skalla D. W., Chu I., Francis B. M. Maternal and developmental toxicity of polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs) in Swiss-Webster mice and Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicology. 1997 Sep 5;121(3):191–204. doi: 10.1016/s0300-483x(97)00066-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Rothman N., Cantor K. P., Blair A., Bush D., Brock J. W., Helzlsouer K., Zahm S. H., Needham L. L., Pearson G. R., Hoover R. N. A nested case-control study of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and serum organochlorine residues. Lancet. 1997 Jul 26;350(9073):240–244. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)02088-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Schecter A. A selective historical review of congener-specific human tissue measurements as sensitive and specific biomarkers of exposure to dioxins and related compounds. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Apr;106 (Suppl 2):737–742. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106737. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Sjödin A., Hagmar L., Klasson-Wehler E., Kronholm-Diab K., Jakobsson E., Bergman A. Flame retardant exposure: polybrominated diphenyl ethers in blood from Swedish workers. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Aug;107(8):643–648. doi: 10.1289/ehp.107-1566483. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Toppari J., Larsen J. C., Christiansen P., Giwercman A., Grandjean P., Guillette L. J., Jr, Jégou B., Jensen T. K., Jouannet P., Keiding N. Male reproductive health and environmental xenoestrogens. Environ Health Perspect. 1996 Aug;104 (Suppl 4):741–803. doi: 10.1289/ehp.96104s4741. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Watanabe I., Tatsukawa R. Formation of brominated dibenzofurans from the photolysis of flame retardant decabromobiphenyl ether in hexane solution by UV and sun light. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1987 Dec;39(6):953–959. doi: 10.1007/BF01689584. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. de Boer J., Wester P. G., Klamer H. J., Lewis W. E., Boon J. P. Do flame retardants threaten ocean life? Nature. 1998 Jul 2;394(6688):28–29. doi: 10.1038/27798. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. von Meyerinck L., Hufnagel B., Schmoldt A., Benthe H. F. Induction of rat liver microsomal cytochrome P-450 by the pentabromo diphenyl ether Bromkal 70 and half-lives of its components in the adipose tissue. Toxicology. 1990 Apr 30;61(3):259–274. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(90)90176-h. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Environmental Health Perspectives are provided here courtesy of National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

RESOURCES