Skip to main content
PMC home page
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences logoLink to Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
. 1997 Dec 29;352(1363):1845–1856. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1997.0170

Memory, language, and ageing.

D M Burke 1, D G Mackay 1
PMCID: PMC1692140  PMID: 9460069

Abstract

This overview provides both theoretical and empirical reasons for emphasizing practice and familiar skills as a practical strategy for enhancing cognitive functioning in old age. Our review of empirical research on age-related changes in memory and language reveals a consistent pattern of spared and impaired abilities in normal old age. Relatively preserved in old age is memory performance involving highly practised skills and familiar information, including factual, semantic and autobiographical information. Relatively impaired in old age is memory performance that requires the formation of new connections, for example, recall of recent autobiographical experiences, new facts or the source of newly acquired facts. This pattern of impaired new learning versus preserved old learning cuts across distinctions between semantic memory, episodic memory, explicit memory and perhaps also implicit memory. However, familiar verbal information is not completely preserved when accessed on the output side rather than the input side: aspects of language production, namely word finding and spelling, exhibit significant age-related declines. This emerging pattern of preserved and impaired abilities presents a fundamental challenge for theories of cognitive ageing, which must explain why some aspects of language and memory are more vulnerable to the effects of ageing than others. Information-universal theories, involving mechanisms such as general slowing that are independent of the type or structure of the information being processed, require additional mechanisms to account for this pattern of cognitive aging. Information-specific theories, where the type or structure of the postulated memory units can influence the effects of cognitive ageing, are able to account for this emerging pattern, but in some cases require further development to account for comprehensive cognitive changes such as general slowing.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (293.8 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Arbuckle T. Y., Gold D. P. Aging, inhibition, and verbosity. J Gerontol. 1993 Sep;48(5):P225–P232. doi: 10.1093/geronj/48.5.p225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Burke D. M., Light L. L. Memory and aging: the role of retrieval processes. Psychol Bull. 1981 Nov;90(3):513–514. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Burke D. M., Peters L. Word associations in old age: evidence for consistency in semantic encoding during adulthood. Psychol Aging. 1986 Dec;1(4):283–292. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.1.4.283. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bäckman L., Molander B. Effects of adult age and level of skill on the ability to cope with high-stress conditions in a precision sport. Psychol Aging. 1986 Dec;1(4):334–336. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.1.4.334. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Charness N. Aging and skilled problem solving. J Exp Psychol Gen. 1981 Mar;110(1):21–38. doi: 10.1037//0096-3445.110.1.21. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Cohen G., Faulkner D. Age differences in source forgetting: effects on reality monitoring and on eyewitness testimony. Psychol Aging. 1989 Mar;4(1):10–17. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.4.1.10. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Cooper P. V. Discourse production and normal aging: performance on oral picture description tasks. J Gerontol. 1990 Sep;45(5):P210–P214. doi: 10.1093/geronj/45.5.p210. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Fisk A. D., Cooper B. P., Hertzog C., Anderson-Garlach M. M., Lee M. D. Understanding performance and learning in consistent memory search: an age-related perspective. Psychol Aging. 1995 Jun;10(2):255–268. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.10.2.255. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Golomb J., de Leon M. J., Kluger A., George A. E., Tarshish C., Ferris S. H. Hippocampal atrophy in normal aging. An association with recent memory impairment. Arch Neurol. 1993 Sep;50(9):967–973. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1993.00540090066012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Hamm V. P., Hasher L. Age and the availability of inferences. Psychol Aging. 1992 Mar;7(1):56–64. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.7.1.56. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Hartman M., Hasher L. Aging and suppression: memory for previously relevant information. Psychol Aging. 1991 Dec;6(4):587–594. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.6.4.587. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Hashtroudi S., Johnson M. K., Chrosniak L. D. Aging and source monitoring. Psychol Aging. 1989 Mar;4(1):106–112. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.4.1.106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Heller R. B., Dobbs A. R. Age differences in word finding in discourse and nondiscourse situations. Psychol Aging. 1993 Sep;8(3):443–450. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Jansari A., Parkin A. J. Things that go bump in your life: explaining the reminiscence bump in autobiographical memory. Psychol Aging. 1996 Mar;11(1):85–91. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.11.1.85. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Johnson M. K., Hashtroudi S., Lindsay D. S. Source monitoring. Psychol Bull. 1993 Jul;114(1):3–28. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Krampe R. T., Ericsson K. A. Maintaining excellence: deliberate practice and elite performance in young and older pianists. J Exp Psychol Gen. 1996 Dec;125(4):331–359. doi: 10.1037//0096-3445.125.4.331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Kubeck J. E., Delp N. D., Haslett T. K., McDaniel M. A. Does job-related training performance decline with age? Psychol Aging. 1996 Mar;11(1):92–107. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.11.1.92. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. La Voie D., Light L. L. Adult age differences in repetition priming: a meta-analysis. Psychol Aging. 1994 Dec;9(4):539–553. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.9.4.539. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Laver G. D., Burke D. M. Why do semantic priming effects increase in old age? A meta-analysis. Psychol Aging. 1993 Mar;8(1):34–43. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.8.1.34. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Light L. L., Albertson S. A. Direct and indirect tests of memory for category exemplars in young and older adults. Psychol Aging. 1989 Dec;4(4):487–492. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.4.4.487. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Light L. L., Anderson P. A. Memory for scripts in young and older adults. Mem Cognit. 1983 Sep;11(5):435–444. doi: 10.3758/bf03196980. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Light L. L. Memory and aging: four hypotheses in search of data. Annu Rev Psychol. 1991;42:333–376. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.002001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Light L. L., Singh A. Implicit and explicit memory in young and older adults. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1987 Oct;13(4):531–541. doi: 10.1037//0278-7393.13.4.531. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Lindenberger U., Baltes P. B. Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: a strong connection. Psychol Aging. 1994 Sep;9(3):339–355. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.9.3.339. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Lovelace E. A., Cooley S. Free associations of older adults to single words and conceptually related word triads. J Gerontol. 1982 Jul;37(4):432–437. doi: 10.1093/geronj/37.4.432. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Madden D. J. Adult age differences in the effects of sentence context and stimulus degradation during visual word recognition. Psychol Aging. 1988 Jun;3(2):167–172. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.3.2.167. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Maylor E. A. Recognizing and naming faces: aging, memory retrieval, and the tip of the tongue state. J Gerontol. 1990 Nov;45(6):P215–P226. doi: 10.1093/geronj/45.6.p215. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. McIntyre J. S., Craik F. I. Age differences in memory for item and source information. Can J Psychol. 1987 Jun;41(2):175–192. doi: 10.1037/h0084154. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Mitchell D. B. How many memory systems? Evidence from aging. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1989 Jan;15(1):31–49. doi: 10.1037//0278-7393.15.1.31. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Morrell R. W., Park D. C., Poon L. W. Effects of labeling techniques on memory and comprehension of prescription information in young and old adults. J Gerontol. 1990 Jul;45(4):P166–P172. doi: 10.1093/geronj/45.4.p166. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Morrow D., Leirer V., Altieri P., Fitzsimmons C. When expertise reduces age differences in performance. Psychol Aging. 1994 Mar;9(1):134–148. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.9.1.134. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Myerson J., Hale S., Wagstaff D., Poon L. W., Smith G. A. The information-loss model: a mathematical theory of age-related cognitive slowing. Psychol Rev. 1990 Oct;97(4):475–487. doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.97.4.475. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Nebes R. D., Boller F., Holland A. Use of semantic context by patients with Alzheimer's disease. Psychol Aging. 1986 Sep;1(3):261–269. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.1.3.261. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Parks C. W., Jr, Mitchell D. B., Perlmutter M. Cognitive and social functioning across adulthood: age or student status differences? Psychol Aging. 1986 Sep;1(3):248–254. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.1.3.248. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Rabinowitz J. C. Judgments of origin and generation effects: comparisons between young and elderly adults. Psychol Aging. 1989 Sep;4(3):259–268. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.4.3.259. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Read D. E. Neuropsychological assessment of memory in the elderly. Can J Psychol. 1987 Jun;41(2):158–174. doi: 10.1037/h0084358. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Salthouse T. A. Effects of age and skill in typing. J Exp Psychol Gen. 1984 Sep;113(3):345–371. doi: 10.1037//0096-3445.113.3.345. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Salthouse T. A. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol Rev. 1996 Jul;103(3):403–428. doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Schacter D. L., Osowiecki D., Kaszniak A. W., Kihlstrom J. F., Valdiserri M. Source memory: extending the boundaries of age-related deficits. Psychol Aging. 1994 Mar;9(1):81–89. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.9.1.81. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Small J. A., Kemper S., Lyons K. Sentence comprehension in Alzheimer's disease: effects of grammatical complexity, speech rate, and repetition. Psychol Aging. 1997 Mar;12(1):3–11. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.12.1.3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Spencer W. D., Raz N. Differential effects of aging on memory for content and context: a meta-analysis. Psychol Aging. 1995 Dec;10(4):527–539. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.10.4.527. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Spieler D. H., Balota D. A. Characteristics of associative learning in younger and older adults: evidence from an episodic priming paradigm. Psychol Aging. 1996 Dec;11(4):607–620. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.11.4.607. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Squire L. R. On the course of forgetting in very long-term memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1989 Mar;15(2):241–245. doi: 10.1037//0278-7393.15.2.241. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Stuss D. T., Craik F. I., Sayer L., Franchi D., Alexander M. P. Comparison of older people and patients with frontal lesions: evidence from world list learning. Psychol Aging. 1996 Sep;11(3):387–395. doi: 10.1037//0882-7974.11.3.387. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Sunderland A., Watts K., Baddeley A. D., Harris J. E. Subjective memory assessment and test performance in elderly adults. J Gerontol. 1986 May;41(3):376–384. doi: 10.1093/geronj/41.3.376. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Thomas J. C., Fozard J. L., Waugh N. C. Age-related differences in naming latency. Am J Psychol. 1977 Sep;90(3):499–509. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Wingfield A., Alexander A. H., Cavigelli S. Does memory constrain utilization of top-down information in spoken word recognition? Evidence from normal aging. Lang Speech. 1994 Jul-Sep;37(Pt 3):221–235. doi: 10.1177/002383099403700301. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences are provided here courtesy of The Royal Society

RESOURCES