Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences logoLink to Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
. 1999 Jul 29;354(1387):1359–1370. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1999.0484

Functional neuroimaging in psychiatry.

C H Fu 1, P K McGuire 1
PMCID: PMC1692639  PMID: 10466156

Abstract

Functional neuroimaging is one of the most powerful means available for investigating the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. In this review, we shall focus on the different ways that it can be employed to this end, describing the major findings in the field in the context of different methodological approaches. We will also discuss practical issues that are particular to studying psychiatric disorders and the potential contribution of functional neuroimaging to future psychiatric research.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (454.2 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Andreasen N. C., O'Leary D. S., Cizadlo T., Arndt S., Rezai K., Watkins G. L., Ponto L. L., Hichwa R. D. Remembering the past: two facets of episodic memory explored with positron emission tomography. Am J Psychiatry. 1995 Nov;152(11):1576–1585. doi: 10.1176/ajp.152.11.1576. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Andreasen N. C., O'Leary D. S., Flaum M., Nopoulos P., Watkins G. L., Boles Ponto L. L., Hichwa R. D. Hypofrontality in schizophrenia: distributed dysfunctional circuits in neuroleptic-naïve patients. Lancet. 1997 Jun 14;349(9067):1730–1734. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)08258-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Andreasen N. C., Rezai K., Alliger R., Swayze V. W., 2nd, Flaum M., Kirchner P., Cohen G., O'Leary D. S. Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Assessment with xenon 133 single-photon emission computed tomography and the Tower of London. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992 Dec;49(12):943–958. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820120031006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Austin M. P., Dougall N., Ross M., Murray C., O'Carroll R. E., Moffoot A., Ebmeier K. P., Goodwin G. M. Single photon emission tomography with 99mTc-exametazime in major depression and the pattern of brain activity underlying the psychotic/neurotic continuum. J Affect Disord. 1992 Sep;26(1):31–43. doi: 10.1016/0165-0327(92)90032-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bartlett E. J., Brodie J. D., Simkowitz P., Schlösser R., Dewey S. L., Lindenmayer J. P., Rusinek H., Wolkin A., Cancro R., Schiffer W. Effect of a haloperidol challenge on regional brain metabolism in neuroleptic-responsive and nonresponsive schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Mar;155(3):337–343. doi: 10.1176/ajp.155.3.337. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Basser P. J., Pierpaoli C. Microstructural and physiological features of tissues elucidated by quantitative-diffusion-tensor MRI. J Magn Reson B. 1996 Jun;111(3):209–219. doi: 10.1006/jmrb.1996.0086. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Baxter L. R., Jr, Phelps M. E., Mazziotta J. C., Guze B. H., Schwartz J. M., Selin C. E. Local cerebral glucose metabolic rates in obsessive-compulsive disorder. A comparison with rates in unipolar depression and in normal controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987 Mar;44(3):211–218. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800150017003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Baxter L. R., Jr, Phelps M. E., Mazziotta J. C., Schwartz J. M., Gerner R. H., Selin C. E., Sumida R. M. Cerebral metabolic rates for glucose in mood disorders. Studies with positron emission tomography and fluorodeoxyglucose F 18. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985 May;42(5):441–447. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790280019002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Baxter L. R., Jr, Schwartz J. M., Bergman K. S., Szuba M. P., Guze B. H., Mazziotta J. C., Alazraki A., Selin C. E., Ferng H. K., Munford P. Caudate glucose metabolic rate changes with both drug and behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992 Sep;49(9):681–689. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820090009002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Baxter L. R., Jr, Schwartz J. M., Mazziotta J. C., Phelps M. E., Pahl J. J., Guze B. H., Fairbanks L. Cerebral glucose metabolic rates in nondepressed patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1988 Dec;145(12):1560–1563. doi: 10.1176/ajp.145.12.1560. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Baxter L. R., Jr, Schwartz J. M., Phelps M. E., Mazziotta J. C., Guze B. H., Selin C. E., Gerner R. H., Sumida R. M. Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989 Mar;46(3):243–250. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810030049007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Bench C. J., Frackowiak R. S., Dolan R. J. Changes in regional cerebral blood flow on recovery from depression. Psychol Med. 1995 Mar;25(2):247–261. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700036151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Bench C. J., Friston K. J., Brown R. G., Frackowiak R. S., Dolan R. J. Regional cerebral blood flow in depression measured by positron emission tomography: the relationship with clinical dimensions. Psychol Med. 1993 Aug;23(3):579–590. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700025368. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Bench C. J., Friston K. J., Brown R. G., Scott L. C., Frackowiak R. S., Dolan R. J. The anatomy of melancholia--focal abnormalities of cerebral blood flow in major depression. Psychol Med. 1992 Aug;22(3):607–615. doi: 10.1017/s003329170003806x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Berman K. F., Doran A. R., Pickar D., Weinberger D. R. Is the mechanism of prefrontal hypofunction in depression the same as in schizophrenia? Regional cerebral blood flow during cognitive activation. Br J Psychiatry. 1993 Feb;162:183–192. doi: 10.1192/bjp.162.2.183. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Berman K. F., Zec R. F., Weinberger D. R. Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. II. Role of neuroleptic treatment, attention, and mental effort. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Feb;43(2):126–135. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800020032005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Biver F., Goldman S., Delvenne V., Luxen A., De Maertelaer V., Hubain P., Mendlewicz J., Lotstra F. Frontal and parietal metabolic disturbances in unipolar depression. Biol Psychiatry. 1994 Sep 15;36(6):381–388. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(94)91213-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Breier A., Malhotra A. K., Pinals D. A., Weisenfeld N. I., Pickar D. Association of ketamine-induced psychosis with focal activation of the prefrontal cortex in healthy volunteers. Am J Psychiatry. 1997 Jun;154(6):805–811. doi: 10.1176/ajp.154.6.805. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Breiter H. C., Rauch S. L., Kwong K. K., Baker J. R., Weisskoff R. M., Kennedy D. N., Kendrick A. D., Davis T. L., Jiang A., Cohen M. S. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996 Jul;53(7):595–606. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830070041008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Brodie J. D., Christman D. R., Corona J. F., Fowler J. S., Gomez-Mont F., Jaeger J., Micheels P. A., Rotrosen J., Russell J. A., Volkow N. D. Patterns of metabolic activity in the treatment of schizophrenia. Ann Neurol. 1984;15 (Suppl):S166–S169. doi: 10.1002/ana.410150731. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Buchsbaum M. S., Ingvar D. H., Kessler R., Waters R. N., Cappelletti J., van Kammen D. P., King A. C., Johnson J. L., Manning R. G., Flynn R. W. Cerebral glucography with positron tomography. Use in normal subjects and in patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1982 Mar;39(3):251–259. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1982.04290030001001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Buchsbaum M. S., Potkin S. G., Siegel B. V., Jr, Lohr J., Katz M., Gottschalk L. A., Gulasekaram B., Marshall J. F., Lottenberg S., Teng C. Y. Striatal metabolic rate and clinical response to neuroleptics in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992 Dec;49(12):966–974. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820120054008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Buchsbaum M. S., Wu J. C., DeLisi L. E., Holcomb H. H., Hazlett E., Cooper-Langston K., Kessler R. Positron emission tomography studies of basal ganglia and somatosensory cortex neuroleptic drug effects: differences between normal controls and schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry. 1987 Apr;22(4):479–494. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(87)90170-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Buchsbaum M. S., Wu J., DeLisi L. E., Holcomb H., Kessler R., Johnson J., King A. C., Hazlett E., Langston K., Post R. M. Frontal cortex and basal ganglia metabolic rates assessed by positron emission tomography with [18F]2-deoxyglucose in affective illness. J Affect Disord. 1986 Mar-Apr;10(2):137–152. doi: 10.1016/0165-0327(86)90036-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Bullmore E. T., Brammer M. J., Rabe-Hesketh S., Curtis V. A., Morris R. G., Williams S. C., Sharma T., McGuire P. K. Methods for diagnosis and treatment of stimulus-correlated motion in generic brain activation studies using fMRI. Hum Brain Mapp. 1999;7(1):38–48. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0193(1999)7:1<38::AID-HBM4>3.0.CO;2-Q. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Bullmore E. T., Frangou S., Murray R. M. The dysplastic net hypothesis: an integration of developmental and dysconnectivity theories of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 1997 Dec 19;28(2-3):143–156. doi: 10.1016/s0920-9964(97)00114-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Chabrol H., Guell A., Bes A., Moron P. Cerebral blood flow in schizophrenic adolescents. Am J Psychiatry. 1986 Jan;143(1):130–130. doi: 10.1176/ajp.143.1.130. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Chow E. W., Bassett A. S., Weksberg R. Velo-cardio-facial syndrome and psychotic disorders: implications for psychiatric genetics. Am J Med Genet. 1994 Jun 15;54(2):107–112. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.1320540205. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Cleghorn J. M., Franco S., Szechtman B., Kaplan R. D., Szechtman H., Brown G. M., Nahmias C., Garnett E. S. Toward a brain map of auditory hallucinations. Am J Psychiatry. 1992 Aug;149(8):1062–1069. doi: 10.1176/ajp.149.8.1062. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Cleghorn J. M., Garnett E. S., Nahmias C., Firnau G., Brown G. M., Kaplan R., Szechtman H., Szechtman B. Increased frontal and reduced parietal glucose metabolism in acute untreated schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 1989 May;28(2):119–133. doi: 10.1016/0165-1781(89)90040-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Cohen R. M., Nordahl T. E., Semple W. E., Andreason P., Litman R. E., Pickar D. The brain metabolic patterns of clozapine- and fluphenazine-treated patients with schizophrenia during a continuous performance task. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997 May;54(5):481–486. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830170107014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Curtis V. A., Bullmore E. T., Brammer M. J., Wright I. C., Williams S. C., Morris R. G., Sharma T. S., Murray R. M., McGuire P. K. Attenuated frontal activation during a verbal fluency task in patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Aug;155(8):1056–1063. doi: 10.1176/ajp.155.8.1056. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Curtis V. A., Bullmore E. T., Morris R. G., Brammer M. J., Williams S. C., Simmons A., Sharma T., Murray R. M., McGuire P. K. Attenuated frontal activation in schizophrenia may be task dependent. Schizophr Res. 1999 May 4;37(1):35–44. doi: 10.1016/s0920-9964(98)00141-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Dolan R. J., Bench C. J., Liddle P. F., Friston K. J., Frith C. D., Grasby P. M., Frackowiak R. S. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction in the major psychoses; symptom or disease specificity? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993 Dec;56(12):1290–1294. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.56.12.1290. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Drevets W. C., Price J. L., Simpson J. R., Jr, Todd R. D., Reich T., Vannier M., Raichle M. E. Subgenual prefrontal cortex abnormalities in mood disorders. Nature. 1997 Apr 24;386(6627):824–827. doi: 10.1038/386824a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Drevets W. C., Videen T. O., Price J. L., Preskorn S. H., Carmichael S. T., Raichle M. E. A functional anatomical study of unipolar depression. J Neurosci. 1992 Sep;12(9):3628–3641. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.12-09-03628.1992. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Drevets W. C., Videen T. Q., MacLeod A. K., Haller J. W., Raichle M. E. PET images of blood flow changes during anxiety: correction. Science. 1992 Jun 19;256(5064):1696–1696. doi: 10.1126/science.256.5064.1696. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Early T. S., Reiman E. M., Raichle M. E., Spitznagel E. L. Left globus pallidus abnormality in never-medicated patients with schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Jan;84(2):561–563. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.2.561. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Ebmeier K. P., Blackwood D. H., Murray C., Souza V., Walker M., Dougall N., Moffoot A. P., O'Carroll R. E., Goodwin G. M. Single-photon emission computed tomography with 99mTc-exametazime in unmedicated schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry. 1993 Apr 1;33(7):487–495. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(93)90002-u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Ellison Z., Foong J., Howard R., Bullmore E., Williams S., Treasure J. Functional anatomy of calorie fear in anorexia nervosa. Lancet. 1998 Oct 10;352(9135):1192–1192. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)60529-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Farkas T., Wolf A. P., Jaeger J., Brodie J. D., Christman D. R., Fowler J. S. Regional brain glucose metabolism in chronic schizophrenia. A positron emission transaxial tomographic study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1984 Mar;41(3):293–300. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790140083010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Fletcher P. C., Frith C. D., Grasby P. M., Friston K. J., Dolan R. J. Local and distributed effects of apomorphine on fronto-temporal function in acute unmedicated schizophrenia. J Neurosci. 1996 Nov 1;16(21):7055–7062. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-21-07055.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Fletcher P. C., McKenna P. J., Frith C. D., Grasby P. M., Friston K. J., Dolan R. J. Brain activations in schizophrenia during a graded memory task studied with functional neuroimaging. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998 Nov;55(11):1001–1008. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.55.11.1001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Fredrikson M., Wik G., Annas P., Ericson K., Stone-Elander S. Functional neuroanatomy of visually elicited simple phobic fear: additional data and theoretical analysis. Psychophysiology. 1995 Jan;32(1):43–48. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1995.tb03404.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Frith C. D., Friston K. J., Herold S., Silbersweig D., Fletcher P., Cahill C., Dolan R. J., Frackowiak R. S., Liddle P. F. Regional brain activity in chronic schizophrenic patients during the performance of a verbal fluency task. Br J Psychiatry. 1995 Sep;167(3):343–349. doi: 10.1192/bjp.167.3.343. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Gelder M. G. Biological psychiatry in perspective. Br Med Bull. 1996 Jul;52(3):401–407. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a011556. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. George M. S., Ketter T. A., Parekh P. I., Horwitz B., Herscovitch P., Post R. M. Brain activity during transient sadness and happiness in healthy women. Am J Psychiatry. 1995 Mar;152(3):341–351. doi: 10.1176/ajp.152.3.341. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Geraud G., Arné-Bès M. C., Güell A., Bes A. Reversibility of hemodynamic hypofrontality in schizophrenia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1987 Feb;7(1):9–12. doi: 10.1038/jcbfm.1987.2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Goldberg T. E., Berman K. F., Mohr E., Weinberger D. R. Regional cerebral blood flow and cognitive function in Huntington's disease and schizophrenia. A comparison of patients matched for performance on a prefrontal-type task. Arch Neurol. 1990 Apr;47(4):418–422. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1990.00530040062020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Goodwin G. M., Austin M. P., Dougall N., Ross M., Murray C., O'Carroll R. E., Moffoot A., Prentice N., Ebmeier K. P. State changes in brain activity shown by the uptake of 99mTc-exametazime with single photon emission tomography in major depression before and after treatment. J Affect Disord. 1993 Dec;29(4):243–253. doi: 10.1016/0165-0327(93)90014-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Gur R. E., Gur R. C., Skolnick B. E., Caroff S., Obrist W. D., Resnick S., Reivich M. Brain function in psychiatric disorders. III. Regional cerebral blood flow in unmedicated schizophrenics. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985 Apr;42(4):329–334. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790270015001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Gur R. E., Resnick S. M., Alavi A., Gur R. C., Caroff S., Dann R., Silver F. L., Saykin A. J., Chawluk J. B., Kushner M. Regional brain function in schizophrenia. I. A positron emission tomography study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987 Feb;44(2):119–125. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800140021003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Gur R. E., Resnick S. M., Gur R. C., Alavi A., Caroff S., Kushner M., Reivich M. Regional brain function in schizophrenia. II. Repeated evaluation with positron emission tomography. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987 Feb;44(2):126–129. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800140028004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Gur R. E., Skolnick B. E., Gur R. C., Caroff S., Rieger W., Obrist W. D., Younkin D., Reivich M. Brain function in psychiatric disorders. I. Regional cerebral blood flow in medicated schizophrenics. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1983 Nov;40(11):1250–1254. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1983.01790100096013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Gur R. E., Skolnick B. E., Gur R. C., Caroff S., Rieger W., Obrist W. D., Younkin D., Reivich M. Brain function in psychiatric disorders. II. Regional cerebral blood flow in medicated unipolar depressives. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1984 Jul;41(7):695–699. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790180065008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Holcomb H. H., Cascella N. G., Thaker G. K., Medoff D. R., Dannals R. F., Tamminga C. A. Functional sites of neuroleptic drug action in the human brain: PET/FDG studies with and without haloperidol. Am J Psychiatry. 1996 Jan;153(1):41–49. doi: 10.1176/ajp.153.1.41. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Hurwitz T. A., Clark C., Murphy E., Klonoff H., Martin W. R., Pate B. D. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in major depressive disorder. Can J Psychiatry. 1990 Nov;35(8):684–688. doi: 10.1177/070674379003500807. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Ingvar D. H., Franzén G. Distribution of cerebral activity in chronic schizophrenia. Lancet. 1974 Dec 21;2(7895):1484–1486. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(74)90221-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Jenkins I. H., Brooks D. J., Nixon P. D., Frackowiak R. S., Passingham R. E. Motor sequence learning: a study with positron emission tomography. J Neurosci. 1994 Jun;14(6):3775–3790. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-06-03775.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Kishimoto H., Kuwahara H., Ohno S., Takazu O., Hama Y., Sato C., Ishii T., Nomura Y., Fujita H., Miyauchi T. Three subtypes of chronic schizophrenia identified using 11C-glucose positron emission tomography. Psychiatry Res. 1987 Aug;21(4):285–292. doi: 10.1016/0165-1781(87)90011-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Kling A. S., Metter E. J., Riege W. H., Kuhl D. E. Comparison of PET measurement of local brain glucose metabolism and CAT measurement of brain atrophy in chronic schizophrenia and depression. Am J Psychiatry. 1986 Feb;143(2):175–180. doi: 10.1176/ajp.143.2.175. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Kurachi M., Kobayashi K., Matsubara R., Hiramatsu H., Yamaguchi N., Matsuda H., Maeda T., Hisada K. Regional cerebral blood flow in schizophrenic disorders. Eur Neurol. 1985;24(3):176–181. doi: 10.1159/000115791. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Lahti A. C., Holcomb H. H., Medoff D. R., Tamminga C. A. Ketamine activates psychosis and alters limbic blood flow in schizophrenia. Neuroreport. 1995 Apr 19;6(6):869–872. doi: 10.1097/00001756-199504190-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Liddle P. F., Friston K. J., Frith C. D., Hirsch S. R., Jones T., Frackowiak R. S. Patterns of cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1992 Feb;160:179–186. doi: 10.1192/bjp.160.2.179. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Mann J. J., Malone K. M., Diehl D. J., Perel J., Cooper T. B., Mintun M. A. Demonstration in vivo of reduced serotonin responsivity in the brain of untreated depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1996 Feb;153(2):174–182. doi: 10.1176/ajp.153.2.174. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Martinot J. L., Hardy P., Feline A., Huret J. D., Mazoyer B., Attar-Levy D., Pappata S., Syrota A. Left prefrontal glucose hypometabolism in the depressed state: a confirmation. Am J Psychiatry. 1990 Oct;147(10):1313–1317. doi: 10.1176/ajp.147.10.1313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Mathew R. J., Duncan G. C., Weinman M. L., Barr D. L. Regional cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1982 Oct;39(10):1121–1124. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1982.04290100001001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Mathew R. J., Wilson W. H., Tant S. R., Robinson L., Prakash R. Abnormal resting regional cerebral blood flow patterns and their correlates in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988 Jun;45(6):542–549. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800300038004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Mayberg H. S., Brannan S. K., Mahurin R. K., Jerabek P. A., Brickman J. S., Tekell J. L., Silva J. A., McGinnis S., Glass T. G., Martin C. C. Cingulate function in depression: a potential predictor of treatment response. Neuroreport. 1997 Mar 3;8(4):1057–1061. doi: 10.1097/00001756-199703030-00048. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Mayberg H. S. Frontal lobe dysfunction in secondary depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1994 Fall;6(4):428–442. doi: 10.1176/jnp.6.4.428. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Mayberg H. S., Starkstein S. E., Peyser C. E., Brandt J., Dannals R. F., Folstein S. E. Paralimbic frontal lobe hypometabolism in depression associated with Huntington's disease. Neurology. 1992 Sep;42(9):1791–1797. doi: 10.1212/wnl.42.9.1791. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Mayberg H. S., Starkstein S. E., Sadzot B., Preziosi T., Andrezejewski P. L., Dannals R. F., Wagner H. N., Jr, Robinson R. G. Selective hypometabolism in the inferior frontal lobe in depressed patients with Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol. 1990 Jul;28(1):57–64. doi: 10.1002/ana.410280111. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Mazziotta J. C., Phelps M. E., Carson R. E., Kuhl D. E. Tomographic mapping of human cerebral metabolism: sensory deprivation. Ann Neurol. 1982 Nov;12(5):435–444. doi: 10.1002/ana.410120505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. McGuire P. K., Bench C. J., Frith C. D., Marks I. M., Frackowiak R. S., Dolan R. J. Functional anatomy of obsessive-compulsive phenomena. Br J Psychiatry. 1994 Apr;164(4):459–468. doi: 10.1192/bjp.164.4.459. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. McGuire P. K., Paulesu E., Frackowiak R. S., Frith C. D. Brain activity during stimulus independent thought. Neuroreport. 1996 Sep 2;7(13):2095–2099. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. McGuire P. K., Quested D. J., Spence S. A., Murray R. M., Frith C. D., Liddle P. F. Pathophysiology of 'positive' thought disorder in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1998 Sep;173:231–235. doi: 10.1192/bjp.173.3.231. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. McGuire P. K., Shah G. M., Murray R. M. Increased blood flow in Broca's area during auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Lancet. 1993 Sep 18;342(8873):703–706. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)91707-s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. McGuire P. K., Silbersweig D. A., Wright I., Murray R. M., Frackowiak R. S., Frith C. D. The neural correlates of inner speech and auditory verbal imagery in schizophrenia: relationship to auditory verbal hallucinations. Br J Psychiatry. 1996 Aug;169(2):148–159. doi: 10.1192/bjp.169.2.148. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Meyer J. H., Kennedy S., Brown G. M. No effect of depression on [(15)O]H2O PET response to intravenous d-fenfluramine. Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Sep;155(9):1241–1246. doi: 10.1176/ajp.155.9.1241. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Miguel E. C., Baer L., Coffey B. J., Rauch S. L., Savage C. R., O'Sullivan R. L., Phillips K., Moretti C., Leckman J. F., Jenike M. A. Phenomenological differences appearing with repetitive behaviours in obsessive-compulsive disorder and Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Br J Psychiatry. 1997 Feb;170:140–145. doi: 10.1192/bjp.170.2.140. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Miller D. D., Andreasen N. C., O'Leary D. S., Rezai K., Watkins G. L., Ponto L. L., Hichwa R. D. Effect of antipsychotics on regional cerebral blood flow measured with positron emission tomography. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1997 Oct;17(4):230–240. doi: 10.1016/S0893-133X(97)00042-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Nordahl T. E., Benkelfat C., Semple W. E., Gross M., King A. C., Cohen R. M. Cerebral glucose metabolic rates in obsessive compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1989 Mar;2(1):23–28. doi: 10.1016/0893-133x(89)90003-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. O'Carroll R. E., Moffoot A. P., Van Beck M., Dougall N., Murray C., Ebmeier K. P., Goodwin G. M. The effect of anxiety induction on the regional uptake of 99mTc-exametazime in simple phobia as shown by single photon emission tomography (SPET). J Affect Disord. 1993 Jul;28(3):203–210. doi: 10.1016/0165-0327(93)90106-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Ogura A., Morinobu S., Kawakatsu S., Totsuka S., Komatani A. Changes in regional brain activity in major depression after successful treatment with antidepressant drugs. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1998 Jul;98(1):54–59. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1998.tb10042.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Paradiso S., Crespo Facorro B., Andreasen N. C., O'Leary D. S., Watkins L. G., Boles Ponto L., Hichwa R. D. Brain activity assessed with PET during recall of word lists and narratives. Neuroreport. 1997 Sep 29;8(14):3091–3096. doi: 10.1097/00001756-199709290-00017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Pardo J. V., Pardo P. J., Raichle M. E. Neural correlates of self-induced dysphoria. Am J Psychiatry. 1993 May;150(5):713–719. doi: 10.1176/ajp.150.5.713. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Perani D., Colombo C., Bressi S., Bonfanti A., Grassi F., Scarone S., Bellodi L., Smeraldi E., Fazio F. [18F]FDG PET study in obsessive-compulsive disorder. A clinical/metabolic correlation study after treatment. Br J Psychiatry. 1995 Feb;166(2):244–250. doi: 10.1192/bjp.166.2.244. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Pierpaoli C., Basser P. J. Toward a quantitative assessment of diffusion anisotropy. Magn Reson Med. 1996 Dec;36(6):893–906. doi: 10.1002/mrm.1910360612. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Rauch S. L., Jenike M. A., Alpert N. M., Baer L., Breiter H. C., Savage C. R., Fischman A. J. Regional cerebral blood flow measured during symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder using oxygen 15-labeled carbon dioxide and positron emission tomography. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994 Jan;51(1):62–70. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950010062008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Rauch S. L., Savage C. R., Alpert N. M., Fischman A. J., Jenike M. A. The functional neuroanatomy of anxiety: a study of three disorders using positron emission tomography and symptom provocation. Biol Psychiatry. 1997 Sep 15;42(6):446–452. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(97)00145-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Rauch S. L., Savage C. R., Alpert N. M., Miguel E. C., Baer L., Breiter H. C., Fischman A. J., Manzo P. A., Moretti C., Jenike M. A. A positron emission tomographic study of simple phobic symptom provocation. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995 Jan;52(1):20–28. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950130020003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Rauch S. L., van der Kolk B. A., Fisler R. E., Alpert N. M., Orr S. P., Savage C. R., Fischman A. J., Jenike M. A., Pitman R. K. A symptom provocation study of posttraumatic stress disorder using positron emission tomography and script-driven imagery. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996 May;53(5):380–387. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830050014003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Reiman E. M., Fusselman M. J., Fox P. T., Raichle M. E. Neuroanatomical correlates of anticipatory anxiety. Science. 1989 Feb 24;243(4894 Pt 1):1071–1074. doi: 10.1126/science.2784226. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Reiman E. M., Raichle M. E., Robins E., Mintun M. A., Fusselman M. J., Fox P. T., Price J. L., Hackman K. A. Neuroanatomical correlates of a lactate-induced anxiety attack. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989 Jun;46(6):493–500. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810060013003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Ring H. A., Bench C. J., Trimble M. R., Brooks D. J., Frackowiak R. S., Dolan R. J. Depression in Parkinson's disease. A positron emission study. Br J Psychiatry. 1994 Sep;165(3):333–339. doi: 10.1192/bjp.165.3.333. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Sackeim H. A., Prohovnik I., Moeller J. R., Brown R. P., Apter S., Prudic J., Devanand D. P., Mukherjee S. Regional cerebral blood flow in mood disorders. I. Comparison of major depressives and normal controls at rest. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990 Jan;47(1):60–70. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810130062009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Saxena S., Brody A. L., Schwartz J. M., Baxter L. R. Neuroimaging and frontal-subcortical circuitry in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Br J Psychiatry Suppl. 1998;(35):26–37. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Schwartz J. M. Neuroanatomical aspects of cognitive-behavioural therapy response in obsessive-compulsive disorder. An evolving perspective on brain and behaviour. Br J Psychiatry Suppl. 1998;(35):38–44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Sheppard G., Gruzelier J., Manchanda R., Hirsch S. R., Wise R., Frackowiak R., Jones T. 15O positron emission tomographic scanning in predominantly never-treated acute schizophrenic patients. Lancet. 1983 Dec 24;2(8365-66):1448–1452. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(83)90798-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Silbersweig D. A., Stern E., Frith C., Cahill C., Holmes A., Grootoonk S., Seaward J., McKenna P., Chua S. E., Schnorr L. A functional neuroanatomy of hallucinations in schizophrenia. Nature. 1995 Nov 9;378(6553):176–179. doi: 10.1038/378176a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Silfverskiöld P., Risberg J. Regional cerebral blood flow in depression and mania. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989 Mar;46(3):253–259. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810030059008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Spence S. A., Hirsch S. R., Brooks D. J., Grasby P. M. Prefrontal cortex activity in people with schizophrenia and control subjects. Evidence from positron emission tomography for remission of 'hypofrontality' with recovery from acute schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1998 Apr;172:316–323. doi: 10.1192/bjp.172.4.316. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Squire L. R., Zola-Morgan S. The medial temporal lobe memory system. Science. 1991 Sep 20;253(5026):1380–1386. doi: 10.1126/science.1896849. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Swedo S. E., Schapiro M. B., Grady C. L., Cheslow D. L., Leonard H. L., Kumar A., Friedland R., Rapoport S. I., Rapoport J. L. Cerebral glucose metabolism in childhood-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989 Jun;46(6):518–523. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810060038007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Szechtman H., Nahmias C., Garnett E. S., Firnau G., Brown G. M., Kaplan R. D., Cleghorn J. M. Effect of neuroleptics on altered cerebral glucose metabolism in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988 Jun;45(6):523–532. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800300019002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Vita A., Bressi S., Perani D., Invernizzi G., Giobbio G. M., Dieci M., Garbarini M., Del Sole A., Fazio F. High-resolution SPECT study of regional cerebral blood flow in drug-free and drug-naive schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1995 Jun;152(6):876–882. doi: 10.1176/ajp.152.6.876. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Volk S. A., Kaendler S. H., Hertel A., Maul F. D., Manoocheri R., Weber R., Georgi K., Pflug B., Hör G. Can response to partial sleep deprivation in depressed patients be predicted by regional changes of cerebral blood flow? Psychiatry Res. 1997 Sep 29;75(2):67–74. doi: 10.1016/s0925-4927(97)00021-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Volkow N. D., Wolf A. P., Van Gelder P., Brodie J. D., Overall J. E., Cancro R., Gomez-Mont F. Phenomenological correlates of metabolic activity in 18 patients with chronic schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1987 Feb;144(2):151–158. doi: 10.1176/ajp.144.2.151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Vollenweider F. X., Leenders K. L., Scharfetter C., Antonini A., Maguire P., Missimer J., Angst J. Metabolic hyperfrontality and psychopathology in the ketamine model of psychosis using positron emission tomography (PET) and [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG). Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 1997 Feb;7(1):9–24. doi: 10.1016/s0924-977x(96)00039-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Wagner A. D., Schacter D. L., Rotte M., Koutstaal W., Maril A., Dale A. M., Rosen B. R., Buckner R. L. Building memories: remembering and forgetting of verbal experiences as predicted by brain activity. Science. 1998 Aug 21;281(5380):1188–1191. doi: 10.1126/science.281.5380.1188. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Weinberger D. R., Berman K. F., Iadarola M., Driesen N., Zec R. F. Prefrontal cortical blood flow and cognitive function in Huntington's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988 Jan;51(1):94–104. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.51.1.94. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Weinberger D. R., Berman K. F. Prefrontal function in schizophrenia: confounds and controversies. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1996 Oct 29;351(1346):1495–1503. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1996.0135. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Weinberger D. R., Berman K. F., Zec R. F. Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. I. Regional cerebral blood flow evidence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Feb;43(2):114–124. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800020020004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Widen L., Blomqvist G., Greitz T., Litton J. E., Bergström M., Ehrin E., Ericson K., Eriksson L., Ingvar D. H., Johansson L. PET studies of glucose metabolism in patients with schizophrenia. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1983 May-Jun;4(3):550–552. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Wik G., Fredrikson M., Ericson K., Eriksson L., Stone-Elander S., Greitz T. A functional cerebral response to frightening visual stimulation. Psychiatry Res. 1993 Apr;50(1):15–24. doi: 10.1016/0925-4927(93)90020-i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Wik G., Wiesel F. A., Sjögren I., Blomqvist G., Greitz T., Stone-Elander S. Effects of sulpiride and chlorpromazine on regional cerebral glucose metabolism in schizophrenic patients as determined by positron emission tomography. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1989;97(3):309–318. doi: 10.1007/BF00439443. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Wolkin A., Jaeger J., Brodie J. D., Wolf A. P., Fowler J., Rotrosen J., Gomez-Mont F., Cancro R. Persistence of cerebral metabolic abnormalities in chronic schizophrenia as determined by positron emission tomography. Am J Psychiatry. 1985 May;142(5):564–571. doi: 10.1176/ajp.142.5.564. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Wolkin A., Sanfilipo M., Duncan E., Angrist B., Wolf A. P., Cooper T. B., Brodie J. D., Laska E., Rotrosen J. P. Blunted change in cerebral glucose utilization after haloperidol treatment in schizophrenic patients with prominent negative symptoms. Am J Psychiatry. 1996 Mar;153(3):346–354. doi: 10.1176/ajp.153.3.346. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Woodruff P. W., Wright I. C., Shuriquie N., Russouw H., Rushe T., Howard R. J., Graves M., Bullmore E. T., Murray R. M. Structural brain abnormalities in male schizophrenics reflect fronto-temporal dissociation. Psychol Med. 1997 Nov;27(6):1257–1266. doi: 10.1017/s0033291797005229. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Wu J. C., Gillin J. C., Buchsbaum M. S., Hershey T., Johnson J. C., Bunney W. E., Jr Effect of sleep deprivation on brain metabolism of depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1992 Apr;149(4):538–543. doi: 10.1176/ajp.149.4.538. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Yurgelun-Todd D. A., Waternaux C. M., Cohen B. M., Gruber S. A., English C. D., Renshaw P. F. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of schizophrenic patients and comparison subjects during word production. Am J Psychiatry. 1996 Feb;153(2):200–205. doi: 10.1176/ajp.153.2.200. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences are provided here courtesy of The Royal Society

RESOURCES