Skip to main content
PMC home page
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences logoLink to Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
. 2003 Oct 29;358(1438):1709–1727. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2003.1377

Human nutrition and food research: opportunities and challenges in the post-genomic era.

Susan J Fairweather-Tait 1
PMCID: PMC1693270  PMID: 14561328

Abstract

Sequencing of the human genome has opened the door to the most exciting new era for nutritional science. It is now possible to study the underlying mechanisms for diet-health relationships, and in the near future dietary advice (and possibly tailored food products) for promoting optimal health could be provided on an individual basis, in relation to genotype and lifestyle. The role of food in human evolution is briefly reviewed, from palaeolithic times to modern-day hunter-gatherer societies. The aetiology of 'diseases of modern civilization', such as diabetes, heart disease and cancer, and the effect of changes in dietary patterns are discussed. The risk of disease is often associated with common single nucleotide polymorphisms, but the effect is dependent on dietary intake and nutritional status, and is often more apparent in intervention studies employing a metabolic challenge. To understand the link between diet and health, nutritional research must cover a broad range of areas, from molecular to whole body studies, and is an excellent example of integrative biology, requiring a systems biology approach. The annual cost to the National Health Service of diet-related diseases is estimated to be in excess of 15 billion, and although diet is a key component of any preventative strategy, it is not given the prominence it deserves. For example, less than 1% of the pound 1.6 billion budget for coronary heart disease is spent on prevention. The polygenic and multifactorial nature of chronic diseases requires substantial resources but the potential rewards, in terms of quality of life and economics, are enormous. It is timely therefore to consider investing in a long-term coordinated national programme for nutrition research, combining nutritional genomics with established approaches, to improve the health of individuals and of the nation.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (307.8 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. AHRENS E. H., Jr, BLANKENHORN D. H., TSALTAS T. T. Effect on human serum lipids of substituting plant for animal fat in diet. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1954 Aug-Sep;86(4):872–878. doi: 10.3181/00379727-86-21260. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Adams P. B., Lawson S., Sanigorski A., Sinclair A. J. Arachidonic acid to eicosapentaenoic acid ratio in blood correlates positively with clinical symptoms of depression. Lipids. 1996 Mar;31 (Suppl):S157–S161. doi: 10.1007/BF02637069. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Ames S. K., Ellis K. J., Gunn S. K., Copeland K. C., Abrams S. A. Vitamin D receptor gene Fok1 polymorphism predicts calcium absorption and bone mineral density in children. J Bone Miner Res. 1999 May;14(5):740–746. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.1999.14.5.740. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bell L. S., Cox G., Sealy J. Determining isotopic life history trajectories using bone density fractionation and stable isotope measurements: a new approach. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2001 Sep;116(1):66–79. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.1103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Beskow L. M., Burke W., Merz J. F., Barr P. A., Terry S., Penchaszadeh V. B., Gostin L. O., Gwinn M., Khoury M. J. Informed consent for population-based research involving genetics. JAMA. 2001 Nov 14;286(18):2315–2321. doi: 10.1001/jama.286.18.2315. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Beutler Ernest, Felitti Vincent J., Koziol James A., Ho Ngoc J., Gelbart Terri. Penetrance of 845G--> A (C282Y) HFE hereditary haemochromatosis mutation in the USA. Lancet. 2002 Jan 19;359(9302):211–218. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07447-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bingham S. A. Diet and colorectal cancer prevention. Biochem Soc Trans. 2000 Feb;28(2):12–16. doi: 10.1042/bst0280012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Birley A. J., MacLennan R., Wahlqvist M., Gerns L., Pangan T., Martin N. G. MN blood group affects response of serum LDL cholesterol level to a low fat diet. Clin Genet. 1997 May;51(5):291–295. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.1997.tb02476.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bosch X. Fish consumption and depression. Lancet. 1998 Jul 4;352(9121):71–72. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79559-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Cordain L., Miller J. B., Eaton S. B., Mann N., Holt S. H., Speth J. D. Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Mar;71(3):682–692. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/71.3.682. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Cordain L., Miller J., Mann N. Scant evidence of periodic starvation among hunter-gatherers. Diabetologia. 1999 Mar;42(3):383–384. doi: 10.1007/pl00002924. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cortese C., Motti C. MTHFR gene polymorphism, homocysteine and cardiovascular disease. Public Health Nutr. 2001 Apr;4(2B):493–497. doi: 10.1079/phn2001159. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Crow J. F. The high spontaneous mutation rate: is it a health risk? Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Aug 5;94(16):8380–8386. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.16.8380. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Csermely P. Chaperone overload is a possible contributor to 'civilization diseases'. Trends Genet. 2001 Dec;17(12):701–704. doi: 10.1016/s0168-9525(01)02495-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Dennis Carina. Epigenetics and disease: Altered states. Nature. 2003 Feb 13;421(6924):686–688. doi: 10.1038/421686a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Diamond Jared. Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. Nature. 2002 Aug 8;418(6898):700–707. doi: 10.1038/nature01019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Eaton S. B., Konner M. Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications. N Engl J Med. 1985 Jan 31;312(5):283–289. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198501313120505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Eaton S. B., Konner M., Shostak M. Stone agers in the fast lane: chronic degenerative diseases in evolutionary perspective. Am J Med. 1988 Apr;84(4):739–749. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(88)90113-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Elliott Ruan, Ong Teng Jin. Nutritional genomics. BMJ. 2002 Jun 15;324(7351):1438–1442. doi: 10.1136/bmj.324.7351.1438. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Elphinstone J. J. The health of Australian Aborigines with no previous association with Europeans. Med J Aust. 1971 Aug 7;2(6):293–301. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1971.tb50563.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Enard Wolfgang, Przeworski Molly, Fisher Simon E., Lai Cecilia S. L., Wiebe Victor, Kitano Takashi, Monaco Anthony P., Päbo Svante. Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language. Nature. 2002 Aug 14;418(6900):869–872. doi: 10.1038/nature01025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Experiments that changed nutritional thinking. Proceedings of a minisymposium. Atlanta, Georgia, April 1995 and Washington, DC, April 1996. J Nutr. 1997 May;127(5 Suppl):1017S–1053S. doi: 10.1093/jn/127.5.1017S. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Feinberg Andrew P., Oshimura Mitsuo, Barrett J. Carl. Epigenetic mechanisms in human disease. Cancer Res. 2002 Nov 15;62(22):6784–6787. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Friso Simonetta, Choi Sang-Woon. Gene-nutrient interactions and DNA methylation. J Nutr. 2002 Aug;132(8 Suppl):2382S–2387S. doi: 10.1093/jn/132.8.2382S. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Fung Teresa T., Hu Frank B., Pereira Mark A., Liu Simin, Stampfer Meir J., Colditz Graham A., Willett Walter C. Whole-grain intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002 Sep;76(3):535–540. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.3.535. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Gerber Mariette, Boutron-Ruault Marie-Christine, Hercberg Serge, Riboli Elio, Scalbert Augustin, Siess Marie-Hélène. Actualités en cancérologie: fruits, légumes et cancers Une synthèse du réseau Nacre. Bull Cancer. 2002 Mar;89(3):293–312. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Gracey M. Historical, cultural, political, and social influences on dietary patterns and nutrition in Australian Aboriginal children. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Nov;72(5 Suppl):1361S–1367S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/72.5.1361s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Grover Philip L., Martin Francis L. The initiation of breast and prostate cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2002 Jul;23(7):1095–1102. doi: 10.1093/carcin/23.7.1095. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Guengerich F. P. Functional genomics and proteomics applied to the study of nutritional metabolism. Nutr Rev. 2001 Aug;59(8 Pt 1):259–263. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2001.tb05510.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Harnack Lisa, Nicodemus Kristin, Jacobs David R., Jr, Folsom Aaron R. An evaluation of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans in relation to cancer occurrence. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002 Oct;76(4):889–896. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.4.889. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Hippisley-Cox Julia, Coupland Carol, Pringle Mike, Crown Nicola, Hammersley Vicky. Married couples' risk of same disease: cross sectional study. BMJ. 2002 Sep 21;325(7365):636–636. doi: 10.1136/bmj.325.7365.636. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Hooper L. V., Wong M. H., Thelin A., Hansson L., Falk P. G., Gordon J. I. Molecular analysis of commensal host-microbial relationships in the intestine. Science. 2001 Feb 2;291(5505):881–884. doi: 10.1126/science.291.5505.881. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Hooper Lee, Bartlett Christopher, Davey Smith George, Ebrahim Shah. Systematic review of long term effects of advice to reduce dietary salt in adults. BMJ. 2002 Sep 21;325(7365):628–628. doi: 10.1136/bmj.325.7365.628. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Johnson I. T. Anticarcinogenic effects of diet-related apoptosis in the colorectal mucosa. Food Chem Toxicol. 2002 Aug;40(8):1171–1178. doi: 10.1016/s0278-6915(02)00051-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Kelly D., Conway S. Genomics at work: the global gene response to enteric bacteria. Gut. 2001 Nov;49(5):612–613. doi: 10.1136/gut.49.5.612. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Kesteloot H., Ndam N., Sasaki S., Kowo M., Seghers V. A survey of blood pressure distribution in Pygmy and Bantu populations in Cameroon. Hypertension. 1996 Jan;27(1):108–113. doi: 10.1161/01.hyp.27.1.108. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Key Timothy J., Allen Naomi E., Spencer Elizabeth A., Travis Ruth C. The effect of diet on risk of cancer. Lancet. 2002 Sep 14;360(9336):861–868. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09958-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Kitano Hiroaki. Computational systems biology. Nature. 2002 Nov 14;420(6912):206–210. doi: 10.1038/nature01254. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Knowler William C., Barrett-Connor Elizabeth, Fowler Sarah E., Hamman Richard F., Lachin John M., Walker Elizabeth A., Nathan David M., Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002 Feb 7;346(6):393–403. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa012512. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. LOURAU M., LARTIGUE O. Influence du régime alimentaire sur les effets biologiques produits par une irradiation unique de tout le corps (rayons X). Experientia. 1950 Jan 15;6(1):25–25. doi: 10.1007/BF02154054. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Le Marchand Loïc. Cancer preventive effects of flavonoids--a review. Biomed Pharmacother. 2002 Aug;56(6):296–301. doi: 10.1016/s0753-3322(02)00186-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Levine A. J., Siegmund K. D., Ervin C. M., Diep A., Lee E. R., Frankl H. D., Haile R. W. The methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase 677C-->T polymorphism and distal colorectal adenoma risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000 Jul;9(7):657–663. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. London S. J., Yuan J. M., Chung F. L., Gao Y. T., Coetzee G. A., Ross R. K., Yu M. C. Isothiocyanates, glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 polymorphisms, and lung-cancer risk: a prospective study of men in Shanghai, China. Lancet. 2000 Aug 26;356(9231):724–729. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02631-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Longo Valter D., Finch Caleb E. Evolutionary medicine: from dwarf model systems to healthy centenarians? Science. 2003 Feb 28;299(5611):1342–1346. doi: 10.1126/science.1077991. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Luan J., Browne P. O., Harding A. H., Halsall D. J., O'Rahilly S., Chatterjee V. K., Wareham N. J. Evidence for gene-nutrient interaction at the PPARgamma locus. Diabetes. 2001 Mar;50(3):686–689. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.50.3.686. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Ma J., Stampfer M. J., Giovannucci E., Artigas C., Hunter D. J., Fuchs C., Willett W. C., Selhub J., Hennekens C. H., Rozen R. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphism, dietary interactions, and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Res. 1997 Mar 15;57(6):1098–1102. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Mann J. J. The neurobiology of suicide. Nat Med. 1998 Jan;4(1):25–30. doi: 10.1038/nm0198-025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Mariadason J. M., Corner G. A., Augenlicht L. H. Genetic reprogramming in pathways of colonic cell maturation induced by short chain fatty acids: comparison with trichostatin A, sulindac, and curcumin and implications for chemoprevention of colon cancer. Cancer Res. 2000 Aug 15;60(16):4561–4572. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Martin George M., LaMarco Kelly, Strauss Evelyn, L Kelner Katrina. Research on aging: the end of the beginning. Science. 2003 Feb 28;299(5611):1339–1341. doi: 10.1126/science.299.5611.1339. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Meirhaeghe A., Luan J., Selberg-Franks P., Hennings S., Mitchell J., Halsall D., O'Rahilly S., Wareham N. J. The effect of the Gly16Arg polymorphism of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor gene on plasma free fatty acid levels is modulated by physical activity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001 Dec;86(12):5881–5887. doi: 10.1210/jcem.86.12.8103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Miller J. C., Colagiuri S. The carnivore connection: dietary carbohydrate in the evolution of NIDDM. Diabetologia. 1994 Dec;37(12):1280–1286. doi: 10.1007/BF00399803. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Milton K. Hunter-gatherer diets-a different perspective. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Mar;71(3):665–667. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/71.3.665. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Mottram Donald S., Wedzicha Bronislaw L., Dodson Andrew T. Acrylamide is formed in the Maillard reaction. Nature. 2002 Oct 3;419(6906):448–449. doi: 10.1038/419448a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Neel J. V., Weder A. B., Julius S. Type II diabetes, essential hypertension, and obesity as "syndromes of impaired genetic homeostasis": the "thrifty genotype" hypothesis enters the 21st century. Perspect Biol Med. 1998 Autumn;42(1):44–74. doi: 10.1353/pbm.1998.0060. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. O'Dea K. Cardiovascular disease risk factors in Australian aborigines. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1991 Feb;18(2):85–88. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.1991.tb01412.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. O'Dea K., Sinclair A. J. The effects of low-fat diets rich in arachidonic acid on the composition of plasma fatty acids and bleeding time in Australian aborigines. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 1985 Aug;31(4):441–453. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.31.441. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. O'Dea K. Traditional diet and food preferences of Australian aboriginal hunter-gatherers. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1991 Nov 29;334(1270):233–241. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1991.0112. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. O'Dea K. Westernisation, insulin resistance and diabetes in Australian aborigines. Med J Aust. 1991 Aug 19;155(4):258–264. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1991.tb142236.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. O'Dea K., White N. G., Sinclair A. J. An investigation of nutrition-related risk factors in an isolated Aboriginal community in northern Australia: advantages of a traditionally-orientated life-style. Med J Aust. 1988 Feb 15;148(4):177–180. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. O'Rahilly Stephen. Insights into obesity and insulin resistance from the study of extreme human phenotypes. Eur J Endocrinol. 2002 Oct;147(4):435–441. doi: 10.1530/eje.0.1470435. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Ordovas Jose M., Corella Dolores, Cupples L. Adrienne, Demissie Serkalem, Kelleher Alison, Coltell Oscar, Wilson Peter W. F., Schaefer Ernst J., Tucker Katherine. Polyunsaturated fatty acids modulate the effects of the APOA1 G-A polymorphism on HDL-cholesterol concentrations in a sex-specific manner: the Framingham Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002 Jan;75(1):38–46. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/75.1.38. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Ordovas Jose M., Corella Dolores, Demissie Serkalem, Cupples L. Adrienne, Couture Patrick, Coltell Oscar, Wilson Peter W. F., Schaefer Ernst J., Tucker Katherine L. Dietary fat intake determines the effect of a common polymorphism in the hepatic lipase gene promoter on high-density lipoprotein metabolism: evidence of a strong dose effect in this gene-nutrient interaction in the Framingham Study. Circulation. 2002 Oct 29;106(18):2315–2321. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.0000036597.52291.c9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Pigliucci Massimo. Developmental genetics: buffer zone. Nature. 2002 Jun 6;417(6889):598–599. doi: 10.1038/417598a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Reaven G. M. Hypothesis: muscle insulin resistance is the ("not-so") thrifty genotype. Diabetologia. 1998 Apr;41(4):482–484. doi: 10.1007/s001250050933. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Renaud S., de Lorgeril M., Delaye J., Guidollet J., Jacquard F., Mamelle N., Martin J. L., Monjaud I., Salen P., Toubol P. Cretan Mediterranean diet for prevention of coronary heart disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Jun;61(6 Suppl):1360S–1367S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/61.6.1360S. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Riboli E., Kaaks R. The EPIC Project: rationale and study design. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int J Epidemiol. 1997;26 (Suppl 1):S6–14. doi: 10.1093/ije/26.suppl_1.s6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Sachidanandam R., Weissman D., Schmidt S. C., Kakol J. M., Stein L. D., Marth G., Sherry S., Mullikin J. C., Mortimore B. J., Willey D. L. A map of human genome sequence variation containing 1.42 million single nucleotide polymorphisms. Nature. 2001 Feb 15;409(6822):928–933. doi: 10.1038/35057149. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Schoeninger M. J. Diet and the evolution of modern human form in the Middle East. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1982 May;58(1):37–52. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.1330580105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Sealy J. C., van der Merwe N. J. Isotope assessment of Holocene human diets in the southwestern Cape, South Africa. Nature. 1985 May 9;315(6015):138–140. doi: 10.1038/315138a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Sharp L., Little J., Schofield A. C., Pavlidou E., Cotton S. C., Miedzybrodzka Z., Baird J. O. C., Haites N. E., Heys S. D., Grubb D. A. Folate and breast cancer: the role of polymorphisms in methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR). Cancer Lett. 2002 Jul 8;181(1):65–71. doi: 10.1016/s0304-3835(02)00030-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Simopoulos A. P. Evolutionary aspects of omega-3 fatty acids in the food supply. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1999 May-Jun;60(5-6):421–429. doi: 10.1016/s0952-3278(99)80023-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Simopoulos A. P., Salem N., Jr Egg yolk as a source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant feeding. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 Feb;55(2):411–414. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/55.2.411. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Slattery M. L., Potter J. D., Samowitz W., Schaffer D., Leppert M. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, diet, and risk of colon cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999 Jun;8(6):513–518. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Stadler Richard H., Blank Imre, Varga Natalia, Robert Fabien, Hau Jörg, Guy Philippe A., Robert Marie-Claude, Riediker Sonja. Acrylamide from Maillard reaction products. Nature. 2002 Oct 3;419(6906):449–450. doi: 10.1038/419449a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Sunde R. A. Research needs for human nutrition in the post-genome-sequencing era. J Nutr. 2001 Dec;131(12):3319–3323. doi: 10.1093/jn/131.12.3319. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Swarbrick M. M., Chapman C. M., McQuillan B. M., Hung J., Thompson P. L., Beilby J. P. A Pro12Ala polymorphism in the human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma 2 is associated with combined hyperlipidaemia in obesity. Eur J Endocrinol. 2001 Mar;144(3):277–282. doi: 10.1530/eje.0.1440277. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Söti Csaba, Csermely Péter. Chaperones and aging: role in neurodegeneration and in other civilizational diseases. Neurochem Int. 2002 Dec;41(6):383–389. doi: 10.1016/s0197-0186(02)00043-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Tareke E., Rydberg P., Karlsson P., Eriksson S., Törnqvist M. Acrylamide: a cooking carcinogen? Chem Res Toxicol. 2000 Jun;13(6):517–522. doi: 10.1021/tx9901938. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Tunstall-Pedoe H., Kuulasmaa K., Mähönen M., Tolonen H., Ruokokoski E., Amouyel P. Contribution of trends in survival and coronary-event rates to changes in coronary heart disease mortality: 10-year results from 37 WHO MONICA project populations. Monitoring trends and determinants in cardiovascular disease. Lancet. 1999 May 8;353(9164):1547–1557. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(99)04021-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Ueland P. M., Hustad S., Schneede J., Refsum H., Vollset S. E. Biological and clinical implications of the MTHFR C677T polymorphism. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2001 Apr;22(4):195–201. doi: 10.1016/s0165-6147(00)01675-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Ukkola O., Bouchard C. Clustering of metabolic abnormalities in obese individuals: the role of genetic factors. Ann Med. 2001 Mar;33(2):79–90. doi: 10.3109/07853890109002062. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Vaessen N., Heutink P., Janssen J. A., Witteman J. C., Testers L., Hofman A., Lamberts S. W., Oostra B. A., Pols H. A., van Duijn C. M. A polymorphism in the gene for IGF-I: functional properties and risk for type 2 diabetes and myocardial infarction. Diabetes. 2001 Mar;50(3):637–642. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.50.3.637. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Walczyk Thomas, von Blanckenburg Friedhelm. Natural iron isotope variations in human blood. Science. 2002 Mar 15;295(5562):2065–2066. doi: 10.1126/science.1069389. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Walker A. R. Are health and ill-health lessons from hunter-gatherers currently relevant? Am J Clin Nutr. 2001 Feb;73(2):353–356. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/73.2.353. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Watanabe Susumu, Kang Duk-Hee, Feng Lili, Nakagawa Takahiko, Kanellis John, Lan Hui, Mazzali Marilda, Johnson Richard J. Uric acid, hominoid evolution, and the pathogenesis of salt-sensitivity. Hypertension. 2002 Sep;40(3):355–360. doi: 10.1161/01.hyp.0000028589.66335.aa. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Weissman M. M., Bland R. C., Canino G. J., Faravelli C., Greenwald S., Hwu H. G., Joyce P. R., Karam E. G., Lee C. K., Lellouch J. Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. JAMA. 1996 Jul 24;276(4):293–299. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Welsh S. Atwater to the present: evolution of nutrition education. J Nutr. 1994 Sep;124(9 Suppl):1799S–1807S. doi: 10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1799S. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. White P. D. The tardy growth of preventive cardiology. Am J Cardiol. 1972 Jun;29(6):886–888. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(72)90513-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Young V. R., Scrimshaw N. S. Genetic and biological variability in human nutrient requirements. Am J Clin Nutr. 1979 Feb;32(2):486–500. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/32.2.486. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Young Vernon R. 2001 W.O. Atwater Memorial Lecture and the 2001 ASNS President's Lecture: Human nutrient requirements: the challenge of the post-genome era. J Nutr. 2002 Apr;132(4):621–629. doi: 10.1093/jn/132.4.621. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Zimmet P., Alberti K. G., Shaw J. Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic. Nature. 2001 Dec 13;414(6865):782–787. doi: 10.1038/414782a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. van Dam Rob M., Rimm Eric B., Willett Walter C., Stampfer Meir J., Hu Frank B. Dietary patterns and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus in U.S. men. Ann Intern Med. 2002 Feb 5;136(3):201–209. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-136-3-200202050-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences are provided here courtesy of The Royal Society

RESOURCES