Skip to main content
Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology logoLink to Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology
. 1995 Nov;2(6):637–645. doi: 10.1128/cdli.2.6.637-645.1995

Laboratory tests for detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection.

N F Nuwayhid 1
PMCID: PMC170213  PMID: 8574822

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (212.7 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Anderson K. C., Gorgone B. C., Marlink R. G., Ferriani R., Essex M. E., Benz P. M., Groopman J. E. Transfusion-acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection among immunocompromised persons. Ann Intern Med. 1986 Oct;105(4):519–527. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-105-4-519. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Arnow P. M., Fellner S., Harrington R., Leuther M. False-positive results of screening for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus in chronic hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 1988 May;11(5):383–386. doi: 10.1016/s0272-6386(88)80050-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Barthel H. R., Wallace D. J. False-positive human immunodeficiency virus testing in patients with lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1993 Aug;23(1):1–7. doi: 10.1016/s0049-0172(05)80021-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bedarida G., Cambiè G., D'Agostino F., Ronsivalle M. G., Berto E., Grisi M. E. HIV IgM antibodies in risk groups who are seronegative on ELISA testing. Lancet. 1986 Sep 6;2(8506):570–571. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)90133-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Behets F., Bishagara K., Disasi A., Likin S., Ryder R. W., Brown C., Quinn T. C. Diagnosis of HIV infection with instrument-free assays as an alternative to the ELISA and western blot testing strategy: an evaluation in Central Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1992;5(9):878–882. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Biberfeld G., Bredberg-Rådén U., Böttiger B., Putkonen P. O., Blomberg J., Juto P., Wadell G. Blood donor sera with false-positive Western blot reactions to human immunodeficiency virus. Lancet. 1986 Aug 2;2(8501):289–290. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)92111-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Biggar R. J., Melbye M., Ebbesen P., Alexander S., Nielsen J. O., Sarin P., Faber V. Variation in human T lymphotropic virus III (HTLV-III) antibodies in homosexual men: decline before onset of illness related to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985 Oct 12;291(6501):997–998. doi: 10.1136/bmj.291.6501.997. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Blanton M., Balakrishnan K., Dumaswala U., Zelenski K., Greenwalt T. J. HLA antibodies in blood donors with reactive screening tests for antibody to the immunodeficiency virus. Transfusion. 1987 Jan-Feb;27(1):118–119. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1987.27187121463.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Brattegaard K., Kouadio J., Adom M. L., Doorly R., George J. R., De Cock K. M. Rapid and simple screening and supplemental testing for HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections in west Africa. AIDS. 1993 Jun;7(6):883–885. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199306000-00019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Britigan B. E. Diphenylhydantoin-induced hypogammaglobulinemia in a patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Med. 1991 Apr;90(4):524–527. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Burke D. S., Brundage J. F., Redfield R. R., Damato J. J., Schable C. A., Putman P., Visintine R., Kim H. I. Measurement of the false positive rate in a screening program for human immunodeficiency virus infections. N Engl J Med. 1988 Oct 13;319(15):961–964. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198810133191501. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Burke D. S., Redfield R. R. False-positive Western blot tests for antibodies to HTLV-III. JAMA. 1986 Jul 18;256(3):347–347. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cable R. G., Kakaiya R. M., Roberts S. C., Martin C. R., Shafer A. W., Thaxton J. Follow-up testing of blood donors found to be enzyme immunoassay positive/Western blot negative for HTLV-III antibody. JAMA. 1986 Jul 4;256(1):40–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Caselli D., Maccabruni A., Deicas A., Bossi G., Degioanni M., Achilli G., Aricò M. Indeterminate western blot in children who serorevert for HIV. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1993 Oct 29;693:275–276. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb26281.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Celum C. L., Coombs R. W., Lafferty W., Inui T. S., Louie P. H., Gates C. A., McCreedy B. J., Egan R., Grove T., Alexander S. Indeterminate human immunodeficiency virus type 1 western blots: seroconversion risk, specificity of supplemental tests, and an algorithm for evaluation. J Infect Dis. 1991 Oct;164(4):656–664. doi: 10.1093/infdis/164.4.656. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Challakere K., Rapaport M. H. False-positive human immunodeficiency virus type I ELISA results in low-risk subjects. West J Med. 1993 Aug;159(2):214–215. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Chiodi F., Bredberg-Råden U., Biberfeld G., Böttiger B., Albert J., Asjö B., Fenyö E. M., Norrby E. Radioimmunoprecipitation and Western blotting with sera of human immunodeficiency virus infected patients: a comparative study. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1987 Summer;3(2):165–176. doi: 10.1089/aid.1987.3.165. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Connor E. M., Sperling R. S., Gelber R., Kiselev P., Scott G., O'Sullivan M. J., VanDyke R., Bey M., Shearer W., Jacobson R. L. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1994 Nov 3;331(18):1173–1180. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199411033311801. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Constantine N. T. Serologic tests for the retroviruses: approaching a decade of evolution. AIDS. 1993 Jan;7(1):1–13. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199301000-00001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Couroucé A. M., Muller J. Y., Richard D. False-positive Western blot reactions to human immunodeficiency virus in blood donors. Lancet. 1986 Oct 18;2(8512):921–922. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)90443-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Davey R. T., Jr, Lane H. C. Laboratory methods in the diagnosis and prognostic staging of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rev Infect Dis. 1990 Sep-Oct;12(5):912–930. doi: 10.1093/clinids/12.5.912. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Dock N. L., Kleinman S. H., Rayfield M. A., Schable C. A., Williams A. E., Dodd R. Y. Human immunodeficiency virus infection and indeterminate western blot patterns. Prospective studies in a low prevalence population. Arch Intern Med. 1991 Mar;151(3):525–530. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Dock N. L., Lamberson H. V., Jr, O'Brien T. A., Tribe D. E., Alexander S. S., Poiesz B. J. Evaluation of atypical human immunodeficiency virus immunoblot reactivity in blood donors. Transfusion. 1988 Sep-Oct;28(5):412–418. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1988.28588337326.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Dodd R. Y., Fang C. T. The western immunoblot procedure for HIV antibodies and its interpretation. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990 Mar;114(3):240–245. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Drabick J. J., Baker J. R., Jr HLA antigen contamination of commercial Western blot strips for detecting human immunodeficiency virus. J Infect Dis. 1989 Feb;159(2):357–358. doi: 10.1093/infdis/159.2.357. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Döpel S. H., Schubert U., Grunow R., Pas P., Rönspeck W., Pauli G., Porstmann T. Comparison of four anti-HIV screening assays which belong to different test generations. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1991 May;29(5):331–337. doi: 10.1515/cclm.1991.29.5.331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Eble B. E., Busch M. P., Khayam-Bashi H., Nason M. A., Samson S., Vyas G. N. Resolution of infection status of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seroindeterminate donors and high-risk seronegative individuals with polymerase chain reaction and virus culture: absence of persistent silent HIV type 1 infection in a high-prevalence area. Transfusion. 1992 Jul-Aug;32(6):503–508. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1992.32692367191.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Esteban J. I., Shih J. W., Tai C. C., Bodner A. J., Kay J. W., Alter H. J. Importance of western blot analysis in predicting infectivity of anti-HTLV-III/LAV positive blood. Lancet. 1985 Nov 16;2(8464):1083–1086. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)90683-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Fauci A. S., Macher A. M., Longo D. L., Lane H. C., Rook A. H., Masur H., Gelmann E. P. NIH conference. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: epidemiologic, clinical, immunologic, and therapeutic considerations. Ann Intern Med. 1984 Jan;100(1):92–106. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-100-1-92. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Fauci A. S. The human immunodeficiency virus: infectivity and mechanisms of pathogenesis. Science. 1988 Feb 5;239(4840):617–622. doi: 10.1126/science.3277274. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Fenouillet E., Blanes N., Gluckman J. C. Gp160 of commercial HIV western blots is not gp160env. Should criteria for seropositivity be revised? AIDS. 1991 Jun;5(6):770–770. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Filice G., Soldini L., Orsolini P., Campisi D., Chiesa A., Gulminetti R., Achilli G., Cattaneo E. The association of "standard ELISA" and HIV (env) ELISA for detection and confirmation of HIV antibodies in human sera. Microbiologica. 1991 Jan;14(1):9–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Fleming D. W., Cochi S. L., Steece R. S., Hull H. F. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in low-incidence areas. How safe is unsafe sex? JAMA. 1987 Aug 14;258(6):785–787. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Francis H. L., Kabeya M., Kafuama N., Riggins C., Colebunders R., Ryder R., Curran J., Izaley L., Quinn T. C. Comparison of sensitivities and specificities of latex agglutination and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to the human immunodeficiency virus in African sera. J Clin Microbiol. 1988 Nov;26(11):2462–2464. doi: 10.1128/jcm.26.11.2462-2464.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Genesca J., Shih J. W., Jett B. W., Hewlett I. K., Epstein J. S., Alter H. J. What do western blot indeterminate patterns for human immunodeficiency virus mean in EIA-negative blood donors? Lancet. 1989 Oct 28;2(8670):1023–1025. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(89)91027-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Gocke D. J., Raska K., Jr, Pollack W., Schwartzer T. HTLV-III antibody in commercial immunoglobulin. Lancet. 1986 Jan 4;1(8471):37–38. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)91914-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Goetz D. W., Hall S. E., Harbison R. W., Reid M. J. Pediatric acquired immunodeficiency syndrome with negative human immunodeficiency virus antibody response by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blot. Pediatrics. 1988 Mar;81(3):356–359. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Goldfarb M. F. Effect of heat inactivation on results of HIV antibody detection by Western blot assay. Clin Chem. 1988 Aug;34(8):1661–1662. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Gordon M. A. Caveat: false positive results of HIV testing. Am J Clin Pathol. 1987 Oct;88(4):542–542. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/88.4.542. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Green T. D., Sedmak D. D., Grose M. P., Featheringham N. C., Neff J. C. Evaluation of a rapid peptide-based anti-human immunodeficiency virus-1 antibody immunoassay. Am J Clin Pathol. 1992 Jun;97(6):854–857. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/97.6.854. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Hausler W. J., Jr Report of the Third Consensus Conference on HIV testing sponsored by the Association of State and Territorial Public Health Laboratory Directors. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1988 Aug;9(8):345–349. doi: 10.1086/645875. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Healey D. S., Bolton W. V. Apparent HIV-1 glycoprotein reactivity on western blot in uninfected blood donors. AIDS. 1993 May;7(5):655–658. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199305000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Healey D. S., Maskill W. J., Howard T. S., Armstrong V. A., Bolton W. V., Cooper G. J., Downie J. C., Hiley L. A., Imrie A. A., Johnson S. HIV-1 western blot: development and assessment of testing to resolve indeterminate reactivity. AIDS. 1992 Jul;6(7):629–633. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Hou X., Breese P. L., Douglas J. M., Jr Utility of quantitative enzyme immunoassay reactivity for predicting human immunodeficiency virus seropositivity in low- and high-prevalence populations. J Clin Microbiol. 1994 Jan;32(1):220–223. doi: 10.1128/jcm.32.1.220-223.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Houck J. A., Sedmak D. D., Grose M. P., Neff J. C. Sensitivity and interobserver variability of the Recombigen-HIV-1 LA test. Am J Clin Pathol. 1990 Apr;93(4):538–540. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/93.4.538. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Hunter J. B., Menitove J. E. HLA antibodies detected by ELISA HTLV-III antibody kits. Lancet. 1985 Aug 17;2(8451):397–397. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)92544-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Jackson J. B., MacDonald K. L., Cadwell J., Sullivan C., Kline W. E., Hanson M., Sannerud K. J., Stramer S. L., Fildes N. J., Kwok S. Y. Absence of HIV infection in blood donors with indeterminate western blot tests for antibody to HIV-1. N Engl J Med. 1990 Jan 25;322(4):217–222. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199001253220402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Jindal R., Solomon M., Burrows L. False positive tests for HIV in a woman with lupus and renal failure. N Engl J Med. 1993 Apr 29;328(17):1281–1282. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199304293281717. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Josephson S. L., Swack N. S., Ramirez M. T., Hausler W. J., Jr Investigation of atypical western blot (immunoblot) reactivity involving core proteins of human immunodeficiency virus type. J Clin Microbiol. 1989 May;27(5):932–937. doi: 10.1128/jcm.27.5.932-937.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Jungkind D. L., DiRenzo S. A., Young S. J. Effect of using heat-inactivated serum with the Abbott human T-cell lymphotropic virus type III antibody test. J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Feb;23(2):381–382. doi: 10.1128/jcm.23.2.381-382.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Kashala O., Marlink R., Ilunga M., Diese M., Gormus B., Xu K., Mukeba P., Kasongo K., Essex M. Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and human T cell lymphotropic viruses among leprosy patients and contacts: correlation between HIV-1 cross-reactivity and antibodies to lipoarabinomannan. J Infect Dis. 1994 Feb;169(2):296–304. doi: 10.1093/infdis/169.2.296. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Kelen G. D., Bennecoff T. A., Kline R., Green G. B., Quinn T. C. Evaluation of two rapid screening assays for the detection of human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection in emergency department patients. Am J Emerg Med. 1991 Sep;9(5):416–420. doi: 10.1016/0735-6757(91)90205-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Kemp B. E., Rylatt D. B., Bundesen P. G., Doherty R. R., McPhee D. A., Stapleton D., Cottis L. E., Wilson K., John M. A., Khan J. M. Autologous red cell agglutination assay for HIV-1 antibodies: simplified test with whole blood. Science. 1988 Sep 9;241(4871):1352–1354. doi: 10.1126/science.3413497. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Kleinman S., Fitzpatrick L., Secord K., Wilke D. Follow-up testing and notification of anti-HIV Western blot atypical (indeterminant) donors. Transfusion. 1988 May-Jun;28(3):280–282. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1988.28388219161.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Kleinman S. The significance of HIV-1-indeterminate western blot results in blood donor populations. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990 Mar;114(3):298–303. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Koch K. L., Shankey T. V., Weinstein G. S., Dye R. E., Abt A. B., Current W. L., Eyster M. E. Cryptosporidiosis in a patient with hemophilia, common variable hypogammaglobulinemia, and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1983 Sep;99(3):337–340. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-99-3-337. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Kühnl P., Seidl S., Holzberger G. HLA DR4 antibodies cause positive HTLV-III antibody ELISA results. Lancet. 1985 May 25;1(8439):1222–1223. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)92910-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Lai-Goldman M., McBride J. H., Howanitz P. J., Rodgerson D. O., Miles J. A., Peter J. B. Presence of HTLV-III antibodies in immune serum globulin preparations. Am J Clin Pathol. 1987 May;87(5):635–639. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/87.5.635. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Lampe A. S., Pieterse-Bruins H. J., Egter van Wissekerke J. C. Wearing gloves as cause of false-negative HIV tests. Lancet. 1988 Nov 12;2(8620):1140–1141. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(88)90558-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Learmont J., Tindall B., Evans L., Cunningham A., Cunningham P., Wells J., Penny R., Kaldor J., Cooper D. A. Long-term symptomless HIV-1 infection in recipients of blood products from a single donor. Lancet. 1992 Oct 10;340(8824):863–867. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(92)93281-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Lee D. A., Eby W. C., Molinaro G. A. HIV false positivity after hepatitis B vaccination. Lancet. 1992 Apr 25;339(8800):1060–1060. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(92)90586-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Leitman S. F., Klein H. G., Melpolder J. J., Read E. J., Esteban J. I., Leonard E. M., Harvath L., Shih J. W., Nealon R., Foy J. Clinical implications of positive tests for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in asymptomatic blood donors. N Engl J Med. 1989 Oct 5;321(14):917–924. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198910053211401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Lelie P. N., van der Poel C. L., Reesink H. W. Interpretation of isolated HIV anti-p24 reactivity in Western blot analysis. Lancet. 1987 Mar 14;1(8533):632–632. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(87)90274-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Loussert-Ajaka I., Ly T. D., Chaix M. L., Ingrand D., Saragosti S., Couroucé A. M., Brun-Vézinet F., Simon F. HIV-1/HIV-2 seronegativity in HIV-1 subtype O infected patients. Lancet. 1994 Jun 4;343(8910):1393–1394. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92524-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Mac Kenzie W. R., Davis J. P., Peterson D. E., Hibbard A. J., Becker G., Zarvan B. S. Multiple false-positive serologic tests for HIV, HTLV-1, and hepatitis C following influenza vaccination, 1991. JAMA. 1992 Aug 26;268(8):1015–1017. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. MacDonald K. L., Jackson J. B., Bowman R. J., Polesky H. F., Rhame F. S., Balfour H. H., Jr, Osterholm M. T. Performance characteristics of serologic tests for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) antibody among Minnesota blood donors. Public health and clinical implications. Ann Intern Med. 1989 Apr 15;110(8):617–621. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-110-8-617. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Mahoney A., Parry J. V., Mortimer P. P. Cross-contamination and "confirmed" positive anti-HIV results. Lancet. 1991 Oct 12;338(8772):953–954. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(91)91826-g. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Malone J. D., Smith E. S., Sheffield J., Bigelow D., Hyams K. C., Beardsley S. G., Lewis R. S., Roberts C. R. Comparative evaluation of six rapid serological tests for HIV-1 antibody. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1993 Feb;6(2):115–119. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Martin-Rico P., Pedersen C., Skinhøj P., Nielsen C., Lindhardt B. O. Rapid development of AIDS in an HIV-1-antibody-negative homosexual man. AIDS. 1995 Jan;9(1):95–96. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Martin K., Katz B. Z., Miller G. AIDS and antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in children and their families. J Infect Dis. 1987 Jan;155(1):54–63. doi: 10.1093/infdis/155.1.54. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Mendenhall C. L., Roselle G. A., Grossman C. J., Rouster S. D., Weesner R. E. False positive tests for HTLV-III antibodies in alcoholic patients with hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 1986 Apr 3;314(14):921–922. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198604033141412. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Midthun K., Garrison L., Clements M. L., Farzadegan H., Fernie B., Quinn T. Frequency of indeterminate western blot tests in healthy adults at low risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection. The NIAID AIDS Vaccine Clinical Trails Network. J Infect Dis. 1990 Dec;162(6):1379–1382. doi: 10.1093/infdis/162.6.1379. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Mitchell S. W., Mboup S., Mingle J., Sambe D., Tukei P., Milenge K., Nyamongo J., Mubarak O. K., Sankale J. L., Hanson D. S. Field evaluation of alternative HIV testing strategy with a rapid immunobinding assay and an agglutination assay. Lancet. 1991 Jun 1;337(8753):1328–1331. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(91)92991-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Montero A., Ciardi M. C., Casella M. L., Grazziutti M., Schujman L., Bussi E. Chronic indeterminate western blot in a patient with AIDS and massive proteinuria. AIDS. 1993 May;7(5):742–743. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Mortimer J. An alternative approach to confirming anti-HIV reactivity: a multi-country collaborative study. Bull World Health Organ. 1992;70(6):751–756. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Näher H., Tilgen W., Tilz G., Petzoldt D. Falsch-positive Ergebnisse beim Nachweis von Anti-LAV/HTLV-III-Antikörpern im Enzymimmunoassay. Hautarzt. 1986 Jun;37(6):338–340. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Palumbo P. Laboratory findings in HIV infection in infancy. Clin Perinatol. 1994 Mar;21(1):109–124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Pearlman E. S., Ballas S. K. False-positive human immunodeficiency virus screening test related to rabies vaccination. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1994 Aug;118(8):805–806. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Peterman T. A., Lang G. R., Mikos N. J., Solomon S. L., Schable C. A., Feorino P. M., Britz J. A., Allen J. R. HTLV-III/LAV infection in hemodialysis patients. JAMA. 1986 May 2;255(17):2324–2326. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Petricciani J. C. Licensed tests for antibody to human T-lymphotropic virus type III. Sensitivity and specificity. Ann Intern Med. 1985 Nov;103(5):726–729. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-103-5-726. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Povolotsky J., Polsky B., Laurence J., Jindal R., Rozon-Solomon M., Burrows L. Withdrawal of conclusion: false positive tests for HIV in a woman with lupus. N Engl J Med. 1994 Sep 29;331(13):881–882. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199409293311318. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Quinn T. C., Riggin C. H., Kline R. L., Francis H., Mulanga K., Sension M. G., Fauci A. S. Rapid latex agglutination assay using recombinant envelope polypeptide for the detection of antibody to the HIV. JAMA. 1988 Jul 22;260(4):510–513. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Race E. M., Ramsey K. M., Lucia H. L., Cloyd M. W. Human immunodeficiency virus infection elicits early antibody not detected by standard tests: implications for diagnostics and viral immunology. Virology. 1991 Oct;184(2):716–722. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(91)90441-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Riggin C. H., Beltz G. A., Hung C. H., Thorn R. M., Marciani D. J. Detection of antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus by latex agglutination with recombinant antigen. J Clin Microbiol. 1987 Sep;25(9):1772–1773. doi: 10.1128/jcm.25.9.1772-1773.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Roosendaal R., van Kamp G. J., Mulder C., Calliauw J., Kempers J., Dirks M., Wolters E. C., ten Kate R. W. Microtiter enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using recombinant derived antigens versus western blot in the confirmation of presence of antibodies against the human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol Methods. 1993 Oct;44(2-3):271–280. doi: 10.1016/0166-0934(93)90062-v. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Roy S., Fitz-Gibbon L., Spira B., Portnoy J., Wainberg M. A. False-positive results of confirmatory testing for antibody to HIV-I. CMAJ. 1987 Mar 15;136(6):612–614. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Saag M. S., Britz J. Asymptomatic blood donor with a false positive HTLV-III Western blot. N Engl J Med. 1986 Jan 9;314(2):118–118. doi: 10.1056/nejm198601093140212. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Sayers M. H., Beatty P. G., Hansen J. A. HLA antibodies as a cause of false-positive reactions in screening enzyme immunoassays for antibodies to human T-lymphotropic virus type III. Transfusion. 1986 Jan-Feb;26(1):113–115. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1986.26186124012.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Schable C., Zekeng L., Pau C. P., Hu D., Kaptue L., Gurtler L., Dondero T., Tsague J. M., Schochetman G., Jaffe H. Sensitivity of United States HIV antibody tests for detection of HIV-1 group O infections. Lancet. 1994 Nov 12;344(8933):1333–1334. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90695-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Schwartz J. S., Dans P. E., Kinosian B. P. Human immunodeficiency virus test evaluation, performance, and use. Proposals to make good tests better. JAMA. 1988 May 6;259(17):2574–2579. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Sivak S. L., Wormser G. P. Predictive value of a screening test for antibodies to HTLV-III. Am J Clin Pathol. 1986 Jun;85(6):700–703. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/85.6.700. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Sloand E. M., Pitt E., Chiarello R. J., Nemo G. J. HIV testing. State of the art. JAMA. 1991 Nov 27;266(20):2861–2866. doi: 10.1001/jama.266.20.2861. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Smith D. M., Dewhurst S., Shepherd S., Volsky D. J., Goldsmith J. C. False-positive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay reactions for antibody to human immunodeficiency virus in a population of midwestern patients with congenital bleeding disorders. Transfusion. 1987 Jan-Feb;27(1):112–112. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1987.27187121453.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Steckelberg J. M., Cockerill F. R., 3rd Serologic testing for human immunodeficiency virus antibodies. Mayo Clin Proc. 1988 Apr;63(4):373–380. doi: 10.1016/s0025-6196(12)64860-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Sugg U., Schneider W., Kaufmann R., Gürtler L. Safety of immunoglobulin preparations with respect to transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. Transfusion. 1987 Jan-Feb;27(1):115–115. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1987.27187121457.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Sullivan M. T., Mucke H., Kadey S. D., Fang C. T., Williams A. E. Evaluation of an indirect immunofluorescence assay for confirmation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody in U.S. blood donor sera. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Sep;30(9):2509–2510. doi: 10.1128/jcm.30.9.2509-2510.1992. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Ujhelyi E., Füst G., Illei G., Gyodi E., Nagy K., Toth F. D., Büki B., Dierich M. P., Mayer V., Gal G. Different types of false positive anti-HIV reactions in patients on haemodialysis. Immunol Lett. 1989 Jul;22(1):35–40. doi: 10.1016/0165-2478(89)90139-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Urassa W. K., Bredberg-Rådén U., Mbena E., Pålsson K., Minja E., Lema R. A., Pallangyo K., Mhalu F. S., Biberfeld G. Alternative confirmatory strategies in HIV-1 antibody testing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1992;5(2):170–176. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Van Kerckhoven I., Vercauteren G., Piot P., van der Groen G. Comparative evaluation of 36 commercial assays for detecting antibodies to HIV. Bull World Health Organ. 1991;69(6):753–760. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Ward J. W., Grindon A. J., Feorino P. M., Schable C., Parvin M., Allen J. R. Laboratory and epidemiologic evaluation of an enzyme immunoassay for antibodies to HTLV-III. JAMA. 1986 Jul 18;256(3):357–361. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Ward J. W., Holmberg S. D., Allen J. R., Cohn D. L., Critchley S. E., Kleinman S. H., Lenes B. A., Ravenholt O., Davis J. R., Quinn M. G. Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) by blood transfusions screened as negative for HIV antibody. N Engl J Med. 1988 Feb 25;318(8):473–478. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198802253180803. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Ward J. W., Schable C., Dickinson G. M., Makowka L., Yanaga K., Caruana R., Chan H., Salazar F., Schochetman G., Holmberg S. Acute human immunodeficiency virus infection. Antigen detection and seroconversion in immunosuppressed patients. Transplantation. 1989 Apr;47(4):722–724. doi: 10.1097/00007890-198904000-00030. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Weiblen B. J., Schumacher R. T., Garrett P. E., Hoff R. IgA and IgM human immunodeficiency virus antibodies in weakly reactive or false-negative blood donors. Transfusion. 1991 Jun;31(5):397–400. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1991.31591263192.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Weiblen B. J., Schumacher R. T., Hoff R. Detection of IgM and IgA HIV antibodies after removal of IgG with recombinant protein G. J Immunol Methods. 1990 Feb 9;126(2):199–204. doi: 10.1016/0022-1759(90)90151-k. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Williams A. E., Sullivan M. T. Transfusion-transmitted retrovirus infection. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 1995 Feb;9(1):115–136. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Wiltbank T. B., McCarroll D. R., Wartick M. G. An undetectable source of technical error that could lead to false negative results in enzyme linked immunosorbent assay of antibodies to HIV-1. Transfusion. 1989 Jan;29(1):75–77. doi: 10.1046/j.1537-2995.1989.29189101170.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Zaaijer H. L., v Exel-Oehlers P., Kraaijeveld T., Altena E., Lelie P. N. Early detection of antibodies to HIV-1 by third-generation assays. Lancet. 1992 Sep 26;340(8822):770–772. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(92)92303-w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Zolla-Pazner S., Gorny M. K., Honnen W. J., Pinter A. Reinterpretation of human immunodeficiency virus western blot patterns. N Engl J Med. 1989 May 11;320(19):1280–1281. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198905113201914. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. van der Groen G., Van Kerckhoven I., Vercauteren G., Piot P. Simplified and less expensive confirmatory HIV testing. Bull World Health Organ. 1991;69(6):747–752. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. van der Poel C. L., Lelie P. N., Reesink H. W., van Exel-Oehlers P. J., Tersmette M., van den Akker R., Gonzalves M., Huisman J. G. Blood donors with indeterminate anti-p24gag reactivity in HIV-1 western blot: absence of infectivity to transfused patients and in virus culture. Vox Sang. 1989;56(3):162–167. doi: 10.1111/j.1423-0410.1989.tb02020.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology are provided here courtesy of American Society for Microbiology (ASM)

RESOURCES