Skip to main content
PMC home page
The British Journal of Ophthalmology logoLink to The British Journal of Ophthalmology
. 2001 May;85(5):521–526. doi: 10.1136/bjo.85.5.521

Myopia in Singapore: taking a public health approach

B Seet 1, T Y Wong 1, D Tan 1, S M Saw 1, V Balakrishnan 1, L Lee 1, A Lim 1
PMCID: PMC1723957  PMID: 11316705

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (132.0 KB).

Figure 1  .

Figure 1  

Open in a new tab

Possible determinants of high myopia prevalence and severity in Singapore.    

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Au Eong K. G., Tay T. H., Lim M. K. Education and myopia in 110,236 young Singaporean males. Singapore Med J. 1993 Dec;34(6):489–492. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Au Eong K. G., Tay T. H., Lim M. K. Race, culture and Myopia in 110,236 young Singaporean males. Singapore Med J. 1993 Feb;34(1):29–32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Avila M. P., Weiter J. J., Jalkh A. E., Trempe C. L., Pruett R. C., Schepens C. L. Natural history of choroidal neovascularization in degenerative myopia. Ophthalmology. 1984 Dec;91(12):1573–1581. doi: 10.1016/s0161-6420(84)34116-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Chen C. J., Cohen B. H., Diamond E. L. Genetic and environmental effects on the development of myopia in Chinese twin children. Ophthalmic Paediatr Genet. 1985 Aug;6(1-2):353–359. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Chew S. J., Chia S. C., Lee L. K. The pattern of myopia in young Singaporean men. Singapore Med J. 1988 Jun;29(3):201–211. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chew S. J., Ritch R. Parental history and myopia: taking the long view. JAMA. 1994 Oct 26;272(16):1255–1256. doi: 10.1001/jama.272.16.1255b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chow Y. C., Dhillon B., Chew P. T., Chew S. J. Refractive errors in Singapore medical students. Singapore Med J. 1990 Oct;31(5):472–473. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Curtin B. J. Physiologic vs pathologic myopia: genetics vs environment. Ophthalmology. 1979 May;86(5):681–691. doi: 10.1016/s0161-6420(79)35466-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Fulk G. W., Cyert L. A. Can bifocals slow myopia progression? J Am Optom Assoc. 1996 Dec;67(12):749–754. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Gilmartin B., Gray L. S., Winn B. The amelioration of myopia using biofeedback of accommodation: a review. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1991 Oct;11(4):304–313. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Ginsburg A. P., Evans D. W., Sekule R., Harp S. A. Contrast sensitivity predicts pilots' performance in aircraft simulators. Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1982 Jan;59(1):105–109. doi: 10.1097/00006324-198201000-00020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Goh W. S., Lam C. S. Changes in refractive trends and optical components of Hong Kong Chinese aged 19-39 years. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1994 Oct;14(4):378–382. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Hosaka A. Population studies--myopia experience in Japan. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1988;185:37–40. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1988.tb02659.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Ito-Ohara M., Seko Y., Morita H., Imagawa N., Tokoro T. Clinical course of newly developed or progressive patchy chorioretinal atrophy in pathological myopia. Ophthalmologica. 1998;212(1):23–29. doi: 10.1159/000027254. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Jensen H. Timolol maleate in the control of myopia. A preliminary report. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1988;185:128–129. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1988.tb02686.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Katz J., Tielsch J. M., Sommer A. Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in an adult inner city population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1997 Feb;38(2):334–340. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Khoo C. Y., Chong J., Rajan U. A 3-year study on the effect of RGP contact lenses on myopic children. Singapore Med J. 1999 Apr;40(4):230–237. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Kikukawa A., Yagura S., Akamatsu T. A 25-year prospective study of visual acuity in the Japan Air Self Defense Force personnel. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1999 May;70(5):447–450. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Leung J. T., Brown B. Progression of myopia in Hong Kong Chinese schoolchildren is slowed by wearing progressive lenses. Optom Vis Sci. 1999 Jun;76(6):346–354. doi: 10.1097/00006324-199906000-00013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Lim H. C., Quah B. L., Balakrishnan V., Lim H. C., Tay V., Emmanuel S. C. Vision screening of 4-year-old children in Singapore. Singapore Med J. 2000 Jun;41(6):271–278. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Lin L. L., Chen C. J., Hung P. T., Ko L. S. Nation-wide survey of myopia among schoolchildren in Taiwan, 1986. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1988;185:29–33. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1988.tb02657.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Lin L. L., Shih Y. F., Tsai C. B., Chen C. J., Lee L. A., Hung P. T., Hou P. K. Epidemiologic study of ocular refraction among schoolchildren in Taiwan in 1995. Optom Vis Sci. 1999 May;76(5):275–281. doi: 10.1097/00006324-199905000-00013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Ling S. L., Chen A. J., Rajan U., Cheah W. M. Myopia in ten year old children--a case control study. Singapore Med J. 1987 Aug;28(4):288–292. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Matsumura H., Hirai H. Prevalence of myopia and refractive changes in students from 3 to 17 years of age. Surv Ophthalmol. 1999 Oct;44 (Suppl 1):S109–S115. doi: 10.1016/s0039-6257(99)00094-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Mitchell P., Hourihan F., Sandbach J., Wang J. J. The relationship between glaucoma and myopia: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 1999 Oct;106(10):2010–2015. doi: 10.1016/s0161-6420(99)90416-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Morita H., Funata M., Tokoro T. A clinical study of the development of posterior vitreous detachment in high myopia. Retina. 1995;15(2):117–124. doi: 10.1097/00006982-199515020-00005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Mutti D. O., Zadnik K., Adams A. J. Myopia. The nature versus nurture debate goes on. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1996 May;37(6):952–957. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Ng B. L. Medical selection of military pilots: a Republic of Singapore Air Force perspective. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1994 Sep;23(5):665–668. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Oen F. T., Lim T. H., Chung M. P. Contrast sensitivity in a large adult population. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1994 May;23(3):322–326. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Olmedo M. V., Muñoz J. I., Rodriguez-Cid M. J., Carracedo A., Gomez-Ulla F. J., Salorio M. S. Two different genetic markers for high and low myopia. Eur J Ophthalmol. 1992 Oct-Dec;2(4):196–199. doi: 10.1177/112067219200200406. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Owsley C., Sloane M. E. Contrast sensitivity, acuity, and the perception of 'real-world' targets. Br J Ophthalmol. 1987 Oct;71(10):791–796. doi: 10.1136/bjo.71.10.791. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Pierro L., Camesasca F. I., Mischi M., Brancato R. Peripheral retinal changes and axial myopia. Retina. 1992;12(1):12–17. doi: 10.1097/00006982-199212010-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Rabin J. Correction of subtle refractive error in aviators. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1996 Feb;67(2):161–164. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Rahmani B., Tielsch J. M., Katz J., Gottsch J., Quigley H., Javitt J., Sommer A. The cause-specific prevalence of visual impairment in an urban population. The Baltimore Eye Survey. Ophthalmology. 1996 Nov;103(11):1721–1726. doi: 10.1016/s0161-6420(96)30435-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Rosenberg T., Klie F. Current trends in newly registered blindness in Denmark. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1996 Aug;74(4):395–398. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0420.1996.tb00716.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Saw S. M., Chia S. E., Chew S. J. Relation between work and myopia in Singapore women. Optom Vis Sci. 1999 Jun;76(6):393–396. doi: 10.1097/00006324-199906000-00019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Saw S. M., Chua W. H., Wu H. M., Yap E., Chia K. S., Stone R. A. Myopia: gene-environment interaction. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2000 May;29(3):290–297. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Saw S. M., Katz J., Schein O. D., Chew S. J., Chan T. K. Epidemiology of myopia. Epidemiol Rev. 1996;18(2):175–187. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a017924. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Saw S. M., Nieto F. J., Katz J., Chew S. J. Distance, lighting, and parental beliefs: understanding near work in epidemiologic studies of myopia. Optom Vis Sci. 1999 Jun;76(6):355–362. doi: 10.1097/00006324-199906000-00014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Saw S. M., Nieto F. J., Katz J., Chew S. J. Estimating the magnitude of close-up work in school-age children: a comparison of questionnaire and diary instruments. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 1999 Dec;6(4):291–301. doi: 10.1076/opep.6.4.291.4184. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Saw S. M., Nieto F. J., Katz J., Schein O. D., Levy B., Chew S. J. Factors related to the progression of myopia in Singaporean children. Optom Vis Sci. 2000 Oct;77(10):549–554. doi: 10.1097/00006324-200010000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. See J. L., Wong T. Y., Yeo K. T. Trends in the pattern of blindness and major ocular diseases in Singapore and Asia. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1998 Jul;27(4):540–546. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Shih Y. F., Chen C. H., Chou A. C., Ho T. C., Lin L. L., Hung P. T. Effects of different concentrations of atropine on controlling myopia in myopic children. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 1999 Feb;15(1):85–90. doi: 10.1089/jop.1999.15.85. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Shih Y. F., Lin L. L., Hwang C. Y., Huang J. K., Hung P. T., Hou P. K. The effects of Qi-Qong ocular exercise on accommodation. Chin J Physiol. 1995;38(1):35–42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Sommer A., Tielsch J. M., Katz J., Quigley H. A., Gottsch J. D., Javitt J. C., Martone J. F., Royall R. M., Witt K. A., Ezrine S. Racial differences in the cause-specific prevalence of blindness in east Baltimore. N Engl J Med. 1991 Nov 14;325(20):1412–1417. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199111143252004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Sperduto R. D., Seigel D., Roberts J., Rowland M. Prevalence of myopia in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983 Mar;101(3):405–407. doi: 10.1001/archopht.1983.01040010405011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Still D. L., Temme L. A. Eyeglass use by U.S. Navy jet pilots: effects on night carrier landing performance. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1992 Apr;63(4):273–275. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Stone R. A., Laties A. M., Raviola E., Wiesel T. N. Increase in retinal vasoactive intestinal polypeptide after eyelid fusion in primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Jan;85(1):257–260. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.1.257. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Stone R. A., Lin T., Laties A. M. Muscarinic antagonist effects on experimental chick myopia. Exp Eye Res. 1991 Jun;52(6):755–758. doi: 10.1016/0014-4835(91)90027-c. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Tan D. T., Lee C. P., Lim A. S. Corneal ulcers in two institutions in Singapore: analysis of causative factors, organisms and antibiotic resistance. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1995 Nov;24(6):823–829. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Tan N. W., Saw S. M., Lam D. S., Cheng H. M., Rajan U., Chew S. J. Temporal variations in myopia progression in Singaporean children within an academic year. Optom Vis Sci. 2000 Sep;77(9):465–472. doi: 10.1097/00006324-200009000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Tay M. T., Au Eong K. G., Ng C. Y., Lim M. K. Myopia and educational attainment in 421,116 young Singaporean males. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1992 Nov;21(6):785–791. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Teikari J. M., O'Donnell J., Kaprio J., Koskenvuo M. Impact of heredity in myopia. Hum Hered. 1991;41(3):151–156. doi: 10.1159/000153994. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Turatto M., Facoetti A., Serra G., Benso F., Angi M., Umiltà C., Mascetti G. G. Visuospatial attention in myopia. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 1999 Oct 25;8(3):369–372. doi: 10.1016/s0926-6410(99)00025-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Veljković D. Uticaj refrakcionih anomalija u mladih na uspeh u streljastvu. Vojnosanit Pregl. 1989 Nov-Dec;46(6):412–414. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Wallman J. Nature and nurture of myopia. Nature. 1994 Sep 15;371(6494):201–202. doi: 10.1038/371201a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Wee T. L., Chan W. K., Tseng P., Tan D., Balakrishnan V., Low C. H. Excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy for the correction of myopia. Singapore Med J. 1999 Apr;40(4):246–250. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Wensor M., McCarty C. A., Taylor H. R. Prevalence and risk factors of myopia in Victoria, Australia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 May;117(5):658–663. doi: 10.1001/archopht.117.5.658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Wildsoet C., Wallman J. Choroidal and scleral mechanisms of compensation for spectacle lenses in chicks. Vision Res. 1995 May;35(9):1175–1194. doi: 10.1016/0042-6989(94)00233-c. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Wilson D. R., Keeney A. H. Corrective measures for myopia. Surv Ophthalmol. 1990 Jan-Feb;34(4):294–304. doi: 10.1016/0039-6257(90)90028-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Wong T. Y., Foster P. J., Hee J., Ng T. P., Tielsch J. M., Chew S. J., Johnson G. J., Seah S. K. Prevalence and risk factors for refractive errors in adult Chinese in Singapore. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000 Aug;41(9):2486–2494. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Wong T. Y., Foster P. J., Ng T. P., Tielsch J. M., Johnson G. J., Seah S. K. Variations in ocular biometry in an adult Chinese population in Singapore: the Tanjong Pagar Survey. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001 Jan;42(1):73–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Wong T. Y., Tielsch J. M., Schein O. D. Racial difference in the incidence of retinal detachment in Singapore. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 Mar;117(3):379–383. doi: 10.1001/archopht.117.3.379. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Wu M. M., Edwards M. H. The effect of having myopic parents: an analysis of myopia in three generations. Optom Vis Sci. 1999 Jun;76(6):387–392. doi: 10.1097/00006324-199906000-00018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Wu S. Y., Nemesure B., Leske M. C. Refractive errors in a black adult population: the Barbados Eye Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999 Sep;40(10):2179–2184. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Yap M., Wu M., Liu Z. M., Lee F. L., Wang S. H. Role of heredity in the genesis of myopia. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1993 Jul;13(3):316–319. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-1313.1993.tb00479.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Young T. L., Ronan S. M., Drahozal L. A., Wildenberg S. C., Alvear A. B., Oetting W. S., Atwood L. D., Wilkin D. J., King R. A. Evidence that a locus for familial high myopia maps to chromosome 18p. Am J Hum Genet. 1998 Jul;63(1):109–119. doi: 10.1086/301907. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Zadnik K., Satariano W. A., Mutti D. O., Sholtz R. I., Adams A. J. The effect of parental history of myopia on children's eye size. JAMA. 1994 May 4;271(17):1323–1327. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Zhan M. Z., Saw S. M., Hong R. Z., Fu Z. F., Yang H., Shui Y. B., Yap M. K., Chew S. J. Refractive errors in Singapore and Xiamen, China--a comparative study in school children aged 6 to 7 years. Optom Vis Sci. 2000 Jun;77(6):302–308. doi: 10.1097/00006324-200006000-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from The British Journal of Ophthalmology are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES