Skip to main content
PMC home page
Gut logoLink to Gut
. 1999 Feb;44(2):143–147. doi: 10.1136/gut.44.2.143

Role of nitric oxide in intestinal water and electrolyte transport

F MOURAD 1, J TURVILL 1, M FARTHING 1
PMCID: PMC1727394  PMID: 9895365

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (148.1 KB).

Figure 1 .

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

Putative mechanisms of action of nitric oxide (NO) as a mediator of intestinal water and electrolyte transport under resting conditions. The release of background levels of NO modulates absorption by maintaining microvascular villus perfusion (1); by a direct action on epithelial cell function (2) and tight junction integrity (3); and by the activation of neurotransmission within the enteric nervous system (4). Raised NO concentrations mediate secretion by a direct action on epithelial cell function (or by cyclooygenase- and 5-hydroxytryptamine dependent pathways) (A); and by neurotransmission within the enteric nervous system (B) and the autonomic nervous system (C). 


Figure 2 .

Figure 2

Open in a new tab

Putative mechanisms of action of nitric oxide (NO) as a mediator of intestinal water and electrolyte transport in hypersecretory states. The inhibition of NO release inhibits secretion by: modulating microvascular villus perfusion (1); a direct action on epithelial cell function (2); the activation of neurotransmission within the enteric nervous system (myenteric plexus) (3) and the autonomic nervous system (4); and by the inhibition of free radical formation (5). Increased levels of NO inhibit secretion by a direct action on epithelial cell function (A) by: the stabilisation of enterochromaffin cells (B) and mast cells (C); inhibiting 5-hydroytryptamine (5-HT) induced secretion (D); and by inhibiting intestinal motility (E). 


Figure 3 .

Figure 3

Open in a new tab

Putative actions of nitric oxide (NO) on the enterocyte. Actions of NO on the enterocyte include the maintenance of tight junctional integrity (1); the modulation of cell respiration (2); the activation of soluble guanylate cyclase (GC) (3); the opening of apical chloride channels (4); the activation of basolateral potassium channels (5); the stimulation of cyclooxygenase activity to generate prostaglandins (PG) (6); and the modulation of receptor activity (7). 


Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Allescher H. D., Kurjak M., Huber A., Trudrung P., Schusdziarra V. Regulation of VIP release from rat enteric nerve terminals: evidence for a stimulatory effect of NO. Am J Physiol. 1996 Oct;271(4 Pt 1):G568–G574. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1996.271.4.G568. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Arnold W. P., Mittal C. K., Katsuki S., Murad F. Nitric oxide activates guanylate cyclase and increases guanosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate levels in various tissue preparations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 Aug;74(8):3203–3207. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.8.3203. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Barry M. K., Aloisi J. D., Pickering S. P., Yeo C. J. Nitric oxide modulates water and electrolyte transport in the ileum. Ann Surg. 1994 Apr;219(4):382–388. doi: 10.1097/00000658-199404000-00009. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Beasley D., Schwartz J. H., Brenner B. M. Interleukin 1 induces prolonged L-arginine-dependent cyclic guanosine monophosphate and nitrite production in rat vascular smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest. 1991 Feb;87(2):602–608. doi: 10.1172/JCI115036. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bern M. J., Sturbaum C. W., Karayalcin S. S., Berschneider H. M., Wachsman J. T., Powell D. W. Immune system control of rat and rabbit colonic electrolyte transport. Role of prostaglandins and enteric nervous system. J Clin Invest. 1989 Jun;83(6):1810–1820. doi: 10.1172/JCI114086. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Beubler E., Horina G. 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptor subtypes mediate cholera toxin-induced intestinal fluid secretion in the rat. Gastroenterology. 1990 Jul;99(1):83–89. doi: 10.1016/0016-5085(90)91233-v. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Beubler E., Schirgi-Degen A. Nitric oxide counteracts 5-hydroxytryptamine- and cholera toxin-induced fluid secretion and enhances the effect of oral rehydration solution. Eur J Pharmacol. 1997 May 20;326(2-3):223–228. doi: 10.1016/s0014-2999(97)85417-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Blachier F., Darcy-Vrillon B., Sener A., Duée P. H., Malaisse W. J. Arginine metabolism in rat enterocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1991 May 17;1092(3):304–310. doi: 10.1016/s0167-4889(97)90005-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Boughton-Smith N. K., Evans S. M., Hawkey C. J., Cole A. T., Balsitis M., Whittle B. J., Moncada S. Nitric oxide synthase activity in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Lancet. 1993 Aug 7;342(8867):338–340. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)91476-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Bryant M. G., Polak M. M., Modlin I., Bloom S. R., Albuquerque R. H., Pearse A. G. Possible dual role for vasoactive intestinal peptide as gastrointestinal hormone and neurotransmitter substance. Lancet. 1976 May 8;1(7967):991–993. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(76)91863-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Capasso F., Mascolo N., Izzo A. A., Gaginella T. S. Dissociation of castor oil-induced diarrhoea and intestinal mucosal injury in rat: effect of NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester. Br J Pharmacol. 1994 Dec;113(4):1127–1130. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1994.tb17113.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Casellas F., Mourelle M., Papo M., Guarner F., Antolin M., Armengol J. R., Malagelada J. R. Bile acid induced colonic irritation stimulates intracolonic nitric oxide release in humans. Gut. 1996 May;38(5):719–723. doi: 10.1136/gut.38.5.719. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Costa M., Furness J. B., Buffa R., Said S. I. Distribution of enteric nerve cell bodies and axons showing immunoreactivity for vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in the guinea-pig intestine. Neuroscience. 1980;5(3):587–596. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(80)90056-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Eutamene H., Theodorou V., Fioramonti J., Bueno L. Implication of NK1 and NK2 receptors in rat colonic hypersecretion induced by interleukin 1 beta: role of nitric oxide. Gastroenterology. 1995 Aug;109(2):483–489. doi: 10.1016/0016-5085(95)90336-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Franks C. M., Hardcastle J., Hardcastle P. T. Involvement of nitric oxide in the response to 5-hydroxytryptamine in the rat in-vivo. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1994 May;46(5):387–389. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1994.tb03821.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Gaginella T. S., Kachur J. F., Tamai H., Keshavarzian A. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen metabolites as mediators of secretory diarrhea. Gastroenterology. 1995 Dec;109(6):2019–2028. doi: 10.1016/0016-5085(95)90772-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Gaginella T. S., Mascolo N., Izzo A. A., Autore G., Capasso F. Nitric oxide as a mediator of bisacodyl and phenolphthalein laxative action: induction of nitric oxide synthase. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1994 Sep;270(3):1239–1245. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Gardiner S. M., Compton A. M., Bennett T., Palmer R. M., Moncada S. Regional haemodynamic changes during oral ingestion of NG-monomethyl-L-arginine or NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in conscious Brattleboro rats. Br J Pharmacol. 1990 Sep;101(1):10–12. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1990.tb12079.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Guandalini S., Migliavacca M., de Campora E., Rubino A. Cyclic guanosine monophosphate effects on nutrient and electrolyte transport in rabbit ileum. Gastroenterology. 1982 Jul;83(1 Pt 1):15–21. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Hayden U. L., Greenberg R. N., Carey H. V. Role of prostaglandins and enteric nerves in Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin (STa)-induced intestinal secretion in pigs. Am J Vet Res. 1996 Feb;57(2):211–215. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Hegarty J. E., Fairclough P. D., Clark M. L., Dawson A. M. Jejunal water and electrolyte secretion induced by L-arginine in man. Gut. 1981 Feb;22(2):108–113. doi: 10.1136/gut.22.2.108. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Hellier M. D., Thirumalai C., Holdsworth C. D. The effect of amino acids and dipeptides on sodium and water absorption in man. Gut. 1973 Jan;14(1):41–45. doi: 10.1136/gut.14.1.41. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Henry Y., Lepoivre M., Drapier J. C., Ducrocq C., Boucher J. L., Guissani A. EPR characterization of molecular targets for NO in mammalian cells and organelles. FASEB J. 1993 Sep;7(12):1124–1134. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.7.12.8397130. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Ignarro L. J., Buga G. M., Wood K. S., Byrns R. E., Chaudhuri G. Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Dec;84(24):9265–9269. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.24.9265. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Izzo A. A., Gaginella T. S., Mascolo N., Borrelli F., Capasso F. NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester reduces senna- and cascara-induced diarrhoea and fluid secretion in the rat. Eur J Pharmacol. 1996 Apr 22;301(1-3):137–142. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(96)00023-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Izzo A. A., Gaginella T. S., Mascolo N., Capasso F. Nitric oxide as a mediator of the laxative action of magnesium sulphate. Br J Pharmacol. 1994 Sep;113(1):228–232. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1994.tb16198.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Kadowaki M., Gershon M. D., Kuwahara A. Is nitric oxide involved in 5-HT-induced fluid secretion in the gut? Behav Brain Res. 1996;73(1-2):293–296. doi: 10.1016/0166-4328(96)00126-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Kanwar S., Wallace J. L., Befus D., Kubes P. Nitric oxide synthesis inhibition increases epithelial permeability via mast cells. Am J Physiol. 1994 Feb;266(2 Pt 1):G222–G229. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1994.266.2.G222. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Karayalcin S. S., Sturbaum C. W., Wachsman J. T., Cha J. H., Powell D. W. Hydrogen peroxide stimulates rat colonic prostaglandin production and alters electrolyte transport. J Clin Invest. 1990 Jul;86(1):60–68. doi: 10.1172/JCI114715. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Kostka P., Jang E., Watson E. G., Stewart J. L., Daniel E. E. Nitric oxide synthase in the autonomic nervous system of canine ileum. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993 Jan;264(1):234–239. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Li Y. F., Weisbrodt N. W., Lodato R. F., Moody F. G. Nitric oxide is involved in muscle relaxation but not in changes in short-circuit current in rat ileum. Am J Physiol. 1994 Apr;266(4 Pt 1):G554–G559. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1994.266.4.G554. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Llewellyn-Smith I. J., Song Z. M., Costa M., Bredt D. S., Snyder S. H. Ultrastructural localization of nitric oxide synthase immunoreactivity in guinea-pig enteric neurons. Brain Res. 1992 Apr 17;577(2):337–342. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(92)90294-j. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Lowenstein C. J., Dinerman J. L., Snyder S. H. Nitric oxide: a physiologic messenger. Ann Intern Med. 1994 Feb 1;120(3):227–237. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-120-3-199402010-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. MacNaughton W. K. Nitric oxide-donating compounds stimulate electrolyte transport in the guinea pig intestine in vitro. Life Sci. 1993;53(7):585–593. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(93)90716-g. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Maher M. M., Gontarek J. D., Jimenez R. E., Cahill P. A., Yeo C. J. Endogenous nitric oxide promotes ileal absorption. J Surg Res. 1995 Jun;58(6):687–692. doi: 10.1006/jsre.1995.1108. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Mailman D. Differential effects of lumenal L-arginine and NG-nitro L-arginine on blood flow and water fluxes in rat ileum. Br J Pharmacol. 1994 May;112(1):304–310. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1994.tb13069.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Mascolo N., Gaginella T. S., Izzo A. A., Di Carlo G., Capasso F. Nitric oxide involvement in sodium choleate-induced fluid secretion and diarrhoea in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 1994 Oct 13;264(1):21–26. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(94)90630-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Mascolo N., Izzo A. A., Barbato F., Capasso F. Inhibitors of nitric oxide synthetase prevent castor-oil-induced diarrhoea in the rat. Br J Pharmacol. 1993 Apr;108(4):861–864. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1993.tb13478.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Middleton S. J., Shorthouse M., Hunter J. O. Increased nitric oxide synthesis in ulcerative colitis. Lancet. 1993 Feb 20;341(8843):465–466. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)90211-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Miller M. J., Sadowska-Krowicka H., Chotinaruemol S., Kakkis J. L., Clark D. A. Amelioration of chronic ileitis by nitric oxide synthase inhibition. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993 Jan;264(1):11–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Moncada S., Higgs E. A. Endogenous nitric oxide: physiology, pathology and clinical relevance. Eur J Clin Invest. 1991 Aug;21(4):361–374. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2362.1991.tb01383.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Moncada S., Palmer R. M., Higgs E. A. Nitric oxide: physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology. Pharmacol Rev. 1991 Jun;43(2):109–142. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Mourad F. H., O'Donnell L. J., Andre E. A., Bearcroft C. P., Owen R. A., Clark M. L., Farthing M. J. L-Arginine, nitric oxide, and intestinal secretion: studies in rat jejunum in vivo. Gut. 1996 Oct;39(4):539–544. doi: 10.1136/gut.39.4.539. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Mourad F. H., O'Donnell L. J., Dias J. A., Ogutu E., Andre E. A., Turvill J. L., Farthing M. J. Role of 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 receptors in rat intestinal fluid and electrolyte secretion induced by cholera and Escherichia coli enterotoxins. Gut. 1995 Sep;37(3):340–345. doi: 10.1136/gut.37.3.340. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Murthy K. S., Zhang K. M., Jin J. G., Grider J. R., Makhlouf G. M. VIP-mediated G protein-coupled Ca2+ influx activates a constitutive NOS in dispersed gastric muscle cells. Am J Physiol. 1993 Oct;265(4 Pt 1):G660–G671. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1993.265.4.G660. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Nichols K., Staines W., Krantis A. Nitric oxide synthase distribution in the rat intestine: a histochemical analysis. Gastroenterology. 1993 Dec;105(6):1651–1661. doi: 10.1016/0016-5085(93)91060-u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Nichols K., Staines W., Rubin S., Krantis A. Distribution of nitric oxide synthase activity in arterioles and venules of rat and human intestine. Am J Physiol. 1994 Aug;267(2 Pt 1):G270–G275. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1994.267.2.G270. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Nilsson O., Cassuto J., Larsson P. A., Jodal M., Lidberg P., Ahlman H., Dahlström A., Lundgren O. 5-Hydroxytryptamine and cholera secretion: a histochemical and physiological study in cats. Gut. 1983 Jun;24(6):542–548. doi: 10.1136/gut.24.6.542. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Palmer R. M., Ferrige A. G., Moncada S. Nitric oxide release accounts for the biological activity of endothelium-derived relaxing factor. Nature. 1987 Jun 11;327(6122):524–526. doi: 10.1038/327524a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Qiu B., Pothoulakis C., Castagliuolo I., Nikulasson Z., LaMont J. T. Nitric oxide inhibits rat intestinal secretion by Clostridium difficile toxin A but not Vibrio cholerae enterotoxin. Gastroenterology. 1996 Aug;111(2):409–418. doi: 10.1053/gast.1996.v111.pm8690206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Radi R., Beckman J. S., Bush K. M., Freeman B. A. Peroxynitrite-induced membrane lipid peroxidation: the cytotoxic potential of superoxide and nitric oxide. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1991 Aug 1;288(2):481–487. doi: 10.1016/0003-9861(91)90224-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Rao R. K., Riviere P. J., Pascaud X., Junien J. L., Porreca F. Tonic regulation of mouse ileal ion transport by nitric oxide. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1994 May;269(2):626–631. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Robinson J. W., Mirkovitch V., Winistörfer B., Saegesser F. Response of the intestinal mucosa to ischaemia. Gut. 1981 Jun;22(6):512–527. doi: 10.1136/gut.22.6.512. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Robinson J. W., Winistörfer B., Mirkovitch V. Source of net water and electrolyte loss following intestinal ischaemia. Res Exp Med (Berl) 1980;176(3):263–275. doi: 10.1007/BF01855846. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Rolfe V., Levin R. J. Enterotoxin Escherichia coli STa activates a nitric oxide-dependent myenteric plexus secretory reflex in the rat ileum. J Physiol. 1994 Mar 15;475(3):531–537. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1994.sp020091. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Salvemini D., Misko T. P., Masferrer J. L., Seibert K., Currie M. G., Needleman P. Nitric oxide activates cyclooxygenase enzymes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Aug 1;90(15):7240–7244. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.15.7240. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Salzman A. L. Nitric oxide in the gut. New Horiz. 1995 Feb;3(1):33–45. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Schirgi-Degen A., Beubler E. Significance of nitric oxide in the stimulation of intestinal fluid absorption in the rat jejunum in vivo. Br J Pharmacol. 1995 Jan;114(1):13–18. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1995.tb14899.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Schmidt H. H. NO., CO and .OH. Endogenous soluble guanylyl cyclase-activating factors. FEBS Lett. 1992 Jul 27;307(1):102–107. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(92)80910-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Stevens C., Walz G., Singaram C., Lipman M. L., Zanker B., Muggia A., Antonioli D., Peppercorn M. A., Strom T. B. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta, and interleukin-6 expression in inflammatory bowel disease. Dig Dis Sci. 1992 Jun;37(6):818–826. doi: 10.1007/BF01300378. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Tamai H., Gaginella T. S. Direct evidence for nitric oxide stimulation of electrolyte secretion in the rat colon. Free Radic Res Commun. 1993;19(4):229–239. doi: 10.3109/10715769309056511. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Tepperman B. L., Brown J. F., Whittle B. J. Nitric oxide synthase induction and intestinal epithelial cell viability in rats. Am J Physiol. 1993 Aug;265(2 Pt 1):G214–G218. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.1993.265.2.G214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Thomas D. D., Knoop F. C. The effect of calcium and prostaglandin inhibitors on the intestinal fluid response to heat-stable enterotoxin of Escherichia coli. J Infect Dis. 1982 Feb;145(2):141–147. doi: 10.1093/infdis/145.2.141. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Wapnir R. A., Wingertzahn M. A., Teichberg S. L-arginine in low concentration improves rat intestinal water and sodium absorption from oral rehydration solutions. Gut. 1997 May;40(5):602–607. doi: 10.1136/gut.40.5.602. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Ward S. M., Dalziel H. H., Bradley M. E., Buxton I. L., Keef K., Westfall D. P., Sanders K. M. Involvement of cyclic GMP in non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic inhibitory neurotransmission in dog proximal colon. Br J Pharmacol. 1992 Dec;107(4):1075–1082. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1992.tb13409.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Whittle B. J., Lopez-Belmonte J., Moncada S. Regulation of gastric mucosal integrity by endogenous nitric oxide: interactions with prostanoids and sensory neuropeptides in the rat. Br J Pharmacol. 1990 Mar;99(3):607–611. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1990.tb12977.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Wilson K. T., Vaandrager A. B., De Vente J., Musch M. W., De Jonge H. R., Chang E. B. Production and localization of cGMP and PGE2 in nitroprusside-stimulated rat colonic ion transport. Am J Physiol. 1996 Mar;270(3 Pt 1):C832–C840. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.1996.270.3.C832. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Wilson K. T., Xie Y., Musch M. W., Chang E. B. Sodium nitroprusside stimulates anion secretion and inhibits sodium chloride absorption in rat colon. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993 Jul;266(1):224–230. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Gut are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES