Abstract
In many ways, cervical cancer behaves as a sexually transmitted disease. The major risk factors are multiple sexual partners and early onset of sexual activity. Although high-risk types of human papillomaviruses (HPV) play an important role in the development of nearly all cases of cervical cancer, other sexually transmitted infectious agents may be cofactors. Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is transmitted primarily by sexual contact and therefore has been implicated as a risk factor. Several independent studies suggest that HSV-2 infections correlate with a higher than normal incidence of cervical cancer. In contrast, other epidemiological studies have concluded that infection with HSV-2 is not a major risk factor. Two separate transforming domains have been identified within the HSV-2 genome, but continued viral gene expression apparently is not necessary for neoplastic transformation. HSV infections lead to unscheduled cellular DNA synthesis, chromosomal amplifications, and mutations. These observations suggest that HSV-2 is not a typical DNA tumor virus. It is hypothesized that persistent or abortive infections induce permanent genetic alterations that interfere with differentiation of cervical epithelium and subsequently induce abnormal proliferation. Thus, HSV-2 may be a cofactor in some but not all cases of cervical cancer.
Full Text
The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (213.3 KB).
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Ali M. A., McWeeney D., Milosavljevic A., Jurka J., Jariwalla R. J. Enhanced malignant transformation induced by expression of a distinct protein domain of ribonucleotide reductase large subunit from herpes simplex virus type 2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Sep 15;88(18):8257–8261. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.18.8257. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Anthony D. D., Wentz W. B., Reagan J. W., Heggie A. D. Induction of cervical neoplasia in the mouse by herpes simplex virus type 2 DNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Jun;86(12):4520–4524. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.12.4520. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Aurelian L. Herpes simplex virus type 2 and cervical cancer. Clin Dermatol. 1984 Apr-Jun;2(2):90–99. doi: 10.1016/0738-081x(84)90069-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bejcek B., Conley A. J. A transforming plasmid from HSV-2 transformed cells contains rat DNA homologous to the HSV-1 and HSV-2 genomes. Virology. 1986 Oct 15;154(1):41–55. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(86)90428-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brandt C. R., Kintner R. L., Pumfery A. M., Visalli R. J., Grau D. R. The herpes simplex virus ribonucleotide reductase is required for ocular virulence. J Gen Virol. 1991 Sep;72(Pt 9):2043–2049. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-72-9-2043. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brock K. E., MacLennan R., Brinton L. A., Melnick J. L., Adam E., Mock P. A., Berry G. Smoking and infectious agents and risk of in situ cervical cancer in Sydney, Australia. Cancer Res. 1989 Sep 1;49(17):4925–4928. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cameron J. M., McDougall I., Marsden H. S., Preston V. G., Ryan D. M., Subak-Sharpe J. H. Ribonucleotide reductase encoded by herpes simplex virus is a determinant of the pathogenicity of the virus in mice and a valid antiviral target. J Gen Virol. 1988 Oct;69(Pt 10):2607–2612. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-69-10-2607. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Caras I. W., Martin D. W., Jr Molecular cloning of the cDNA for a mutant mouse ribonucleotide reductase M1 that produces a dominant mutator phenotype in mammalian cells. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Jul;8(7):2698–2704. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.7.2698. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chellappan S. P., Hiebert S., Mudryj M., Horowitz J. M., Nevins J. R. The E2F transcription factor is a cellular target for the RB protein. Cell. 1991 Jun 14;65(6):1053–1061. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90557-f. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chenet-Monte C., Mohammad F., Celluzzi C. M., Schaffer P. A., Farber F. E. Herpes simplex virus gene products involved in the induction of chromosomal aberrations. Virus Res. 1986 Dec;6(3):245–260. doi: 10.1016/0168-1702(86)90073-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chung T. D., Wymer J. P., Smith C. C., Kulka M., Aurelian L. Protein kinase activity associated with the large subunit of herpes simplex virus type 2 ribonucleotide reductase (ICP10). J Virol. 1989 Aug;63(8):3389–3398. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.8.3389-3398.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Clarke P., Clements J. B. Mutagenesis occurring following infection with herpes simplex virus does not require virus replication. Virology. 1991 Jun;182(2):597–606. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(91)90600-g. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Clements G. B., Subak-Sharpe J. H. Herpes simplex virus type 2 establishes latency in the mouse footpad. J Gen Virol. 1988 Feb;69(Pt 2):375–383. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-69-2-375. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Conner J., Cooper J., Furlong J., Clements J. B. An autophosphorylating but not transphosphorylating activity is associated with the unique N terminus of the herpes simplex virus type 1 ribonucleotide reductase large subunit. J Virol. 1992 Dec;66(12):7511–7516. doi: 10.1128/jvi.66.12.7511-7516.1992. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Corbino N., Guglielmino S., Petrina M., Tempera G., Ciravolo L., Cianci A. The role of anti-herpes specific serum IgA levels as a marker in cervical oncogenesis. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol. 1989;10(2):103–108. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Corey L., Spear P. G. Infections with herpes simplex viruses (1). N Engl J Med. 1986 Mar 13;314(11):686–691. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198603133141105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Croen K. D. Latency of the human herpesviruses. Annu Rev Med. 1991;42:61–67. doi: 10.1146/annurev.me.42.020191.000425. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- De Schryver A., Meheus A. Epidemiology of sexually transmitted diseases: the global picture. Bull World Health Organ. 1990;68(5):639–654. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dhanwada K. R., Garrett L., Smith P., Thompson K. D., Doster A., Jones C. Characterization of human keratinocytes transformed by high risk human papillomavirus types 16 or 18 and herpes simplex virus type 2. J Gen Virol. 1993 Jun;74(Pt 6):955–963. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-74-6-955. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dhanwada K. R., Veerisetty V., Zhu F., Razzaque A., Thompson K. D., Jones C. Characterization of primary human fibroblasts transformed by human papilloma virus type 16 and herpes simplex virus type 2 DNA sequences. J Gen Virol. 1992 Apr;73(Pt 4):791–799. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-73-4-791. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Di Luca D., Costa S., Monini P., Rotola A., Terzano P., Savioli A., Grigioni W., Cassai E. Search for human papillomavirus, herpes simplex virus and c-myc oncogene in human genital tumors. Int J Cancer. 1989 Apr 15;43(4):570–577. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910430407. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Di Luca D., Rotola A., Pilotti S., Monini P., Caselli E., Rilke F., Cassai E. Simultaneous presence of herpes simplex and human papilloma virus sequences in human genital tumors. Int J Cancer. 1987 Dec 15;40(6):763–768. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910400609. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Di Paolo J. A., Popescu N. C., Ablashi D. V., Lusso P., Zimonjic D. B., Woodworth C. D. Multistage carcinogenesis utilizing human genital cells and human papillomaviruses. Toxicol Lett. 1994 Jun;72(1-3):7–11. doi: 10.1016/0378-4274(94)90004-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- DiPaolo J. A., Popescu N. C., Alvarez L., Woodworth C. D. Cellular and molecular alterations in human epithelial cells transformed by recombinant human papillomavirus DNA. Crit Rev Oncog. 1993;4(4):337–360. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- DiPaolo J. A., Woodworth C. D., Popescu N. C., Koval D. L., Lopez J. V., Doniger J. HSV-2-induced tumorigenicity in HPV16-immortalized human genital keratinocytes. Virology. 1990 Aug;177(2):777–779. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(90)90548-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dillner J., Lenner P., Lehtinen M., Eklund C., Heino P., Wiklund F., Hallmans G., Stendahl U. A population-based seroepidemiological study of cervical cancer. Cancer Res. 1994 Jan 1;54(1):134–141. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dowdy S. F., Hinds P. W., Louie K., Reed S. I., Arnold A., Weinberg R. A. Physical interaction of the retinoblastoma protein with human D cyclins. Cell. 1993 May 7;73(3):499–511. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90137-f. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dryja T. P., Rapaport J. M., Joyce J. M., Petersen R. A. Molecular detection of deletions involving band q14 of chromosome 13 in retinoblastomas. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Oct;83(19):7391–7394. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.19.7391. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Duff R., Rapp F. Oncogenic transformation of hamster embryo cells after exposure to inactivated herpes simplex virus type 1. J Virol. 1973 Aug;12(2):209–217. doi: 10.1128/jvi.12.2.209-217.1973. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dürst M., Dzarlieva-Petrusevska R. T., Boukamp P., Fusenig N. E., Gissmann L. Molecular and cytogenetic analysis of immortalized human primary keratinocytes obtained after transfection with human papillomavirus type 16 DNA. Oncogene. 1987;1(3):251–256. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dürst M., Kleinheinz A., Hotz M., Gissmann L. The physical state of human papillomavirus type 16 DNA in benign and malignant genital tumours. J Gen Virol. 1985 Jul;66(Pt 7):1515–1522. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-66-7-1515. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Eglin R. P., Sharp F., MacLean A. B., Macnab J. C., Clements J. B., Wilkie N. M. Detection of RNA complementary to herpes simplex virus DNA in human cervical squamous cell neoplasms. Cancer Res. 1981 Sep;41(9 Pt 1):3597–3603. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Franco E. L. Viral etiology of cervical cancer: a critique of the evidence. Rev Infect Dis. 1991 Nov-Dec;13(6):1195–1206. doi: 10.1093/clinids/13.6.1195. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fuchs P. G., Girardi F., Pfister H. Human papillomavirus DNA in normal, metaplastic, preneoplastic and neoplastic epithelia of the cervix uteri. Int J Cancer. 1988 Jan 15;41(1):41–45. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910410109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Galloway D. A., McDougall J. K. Alterations in the cellular phenotype induced by herpes simplex viruses. J Med Virol. 1990 May;31(1):36–42. doi: 10.1002/jmv.1890310108. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Galloway D. A., McDougall J. K. The oncogenic potential of herpes simplex viruses: evidence for a 'hit-and-run' mechanism. Nature. 1983 Mar 3;302(5903):21–24. doi: 10.1038/302021a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Galloway D. A., Nelson J. A., McDougall J. K. Small fragments of herpesvirus DNA with transforming activity contain insertion sequence-like structures. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Aug;81(15):4736–4740. doi: 10.1073/pnas.81.15.4736. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Garrett L. R., Jones C. J., Cuchens M. A. Pristane induced gene activation. Chem Biol Interact. 1992 Jan;81(1-2):119–130. doi: 10.1016/0009-2797(92)90030-o. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gerspach R., Matz B. Herpes simplex virus-directed overreplication of chromosomal DNA physically linked to the simian virus 40 integration site of a transformed hamster cell line. Virology. 1988 Jul;165(1):282–285. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(88)90684-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gissmann L., Wolnik L., Ikenberg H., Koldovsky U., Schnürch H. G., zur Hausen H. Human papillomavirus types 6 and 11 DNA sequences in genital and laryngeal papillomas and in some cervical cancers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983 Jan;80(2):560–563. doi: 10.1073/pnas.80.2.560. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Goldstein D. J., Weller S. K. Factor(s) present in herpes simplex virus type 1-infected cells can compensate for the loss of the large subunit of the viral ribonucleotide reductase: characterization of an ICP6 deletion mutant. Virology. 1988 Sep;166(1):41–51. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(88)90144-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- HAMPAR B., ELLISON S. A. Chromosomal aberrations induced by an animal virus. Nature. 1961 Oct 14;192:145–147. doi: 10.1038/192145a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hakama M., Lehtinen M., Knekt P., Aromaa A., Leinikki P., Miettinen A., Paavonen J., Peto R., Teppo L. Serum antibodies and subsequent cervical neoplasms: a prospective study with 12 years of follow-up. Am J Epidemiol. 1993 Jan 15;137(2):166–170. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116656. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hampton G. M., Penny L. A., Baergen R. N., Larson A., Brewer C., Liao S., Busby-Earle R. M., Williams A. W., Steel C. M., Bird C. C. Loss of heterozygosity in cervical carcinoma: subchromosomal localization of a putative tumor-suppressor gene to chromosome 11q22-q24. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Jul 19;91(15):6953–6957. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.15.6953. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hanson N., Henderson G., Jones C. The herpes simplex virus type 2 gene which encodes the large subunit of ribonucleotide reductase has unusual regulatory properties. Virus Res. 1994 Dec;34(3):265–280. doi: 10.1016/0168-1702(94)90127-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hayashi Y., Iwasaka T., Smith C. C., Aurelian L., Lewis G. K., Ts'o P. O. Multistep transformation by defined fragments of herpes simplex virus type 2 DNA: oncogenic region and its gene product. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985 Dec;82(24):8493–8497. doi: 10.1073/pnas.82.24.8493. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Heilbronn R., zur Hausen H. A subset of herpes simplex virus replication genes induces DNA amplification within the host cell genome. J Virol. 1989 Sep;63(9):3683–3692. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.9.3683-3692.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hiebert S. W., Chellappan S. P., Horowitz J. M., Nevins J. R. The interaction of RB with E2F coincides with an inhibition of the transcriptional activity of E2F. Genes Dev. 1992 Feb;6(2):177–185. doi: 10.1101/gad.6.2.177. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hildesheim A., Mann V., Brinton L. A., Szklo M., Reeves W. C., Rawls W. E. Herpes simplex virus type 2: a possible interaction with human papillomavirus types 16/18 in the development of invasive cervical cancer. Int J Cancer. 1991 Sep 30;49(3):335–340. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910490304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hummel M., Hudson J. B., Laimins L. A. Differentiation-induced and constitutive transcription of human papillomavirus type 31b in cell lines containing viral episomes. J Virol. 1992 Oct;66(10):6070–6080. doi: 10.1128/jvi.66.10.6070-6080.1992. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hwang C. B., Shillitoe E. J. DNA sequence of mutations induced in cells by herpes simplex virus type-1. Virology. 1990 Sep;178(1):180–188. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(90)90392-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jacobson J. G., Leib D. A., Goldstein D. J., Bogard C. L., Schaffer P. A., Weller S. K., Coen D. M. A herpes simplex virus ribonucleotide reductase deletion mutant is defective for productive acute and reactivatable latent infections of mice and for replication in mouse cells. Virology. 1989 Nov;173(1):276–283. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(89)90244-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jariwalla R. J., Aurelian L., Ts'o P. O. Tumorigenic transformation induced by a specific fragment of DNA from herpes simplex virus type 2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980 Apr;77(4):2279–2283. doi: 10.1073/pnas.77.4.2279. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jariwalla R. J., Tanczos B., Jones C., Ortiz J., Salimi-Lopez S. DNA amplification and neoplastic transformation mediated by a herpes simplex DNA fragment containing cell-related sequences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Mar;83(6):1738–1742. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.6.1738. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jha P. K., Beral V., Peto J., Hack S., Hermon C., Deacon J., Mant D., Chilvers C., Vessey M. P., Pike M. C. Antibodies to human papillomavirus and to other genital infectious agents and invasive cervical cancer risk. Lancet. 1993 May 1;341(8853):1116–1118. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)93128-n. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones C., Ortiz J., Jariwalla R. J. Localization and comparative nucleotide sequence analysis of the transforming domain in herpes simplex virus DNA containing repetitive genetic elements. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Oct;83(20):7855–7859. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.20.7855. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones C. The minimal transforming fragment of HSV-2 mtrIII can function as a complex promoter element. Virology. 1989 Apr;169(2):346–353. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(89)90160-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kastan M. B., Onyekwere O., Sidransky D., Vogelstein B., Craig R. W. Participation of p53 protein in the cellular response to DNA damage. Cancer Res. 1991 Dec 1;51(23 Pt 1):6304–6311. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kaur P., McDougall J. K. Characterization of primary human keratinocytes transformed by human papillomavirus type 18. J Virol. 1988 Jun;62(6):1917–1924. doi: 10.1128/jvi.62.6.1917-1924.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kessler I. I. Venereal factors in human cervical cancer: evidence from marital clusters. Cancer. 1977 Apr;39(4 Suppl):1912–1919. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(197704)39:4+<1912::aid-cncr2820390829>3.0.co;2-g. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kim S. J., Onwuta U. S., Lee Y. I., Li R., Botchan M. R., Robbins P. D. The retinoblastoma gene product regulates Sp1-mediated transcription. Mol Cell Biol. 1992 Jun;12(6):2455–2463. doi: 10.1128/mcb.12.6.2455. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kim S. J., Wagner S., Liu F., O'Reilly M. A., Robbins P. D., Green M. R. Retinoblastoma gene product activates expression of the human TGF-beta 2 gene through transcription factor ATF-2. Nature. 1992 Jul 23;358(6384):331–334. doi: 10.1038/358331a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kulomaa P., Paavonen J., Lehtinen M. Herpes simplex virus induces unscheduled DNA synthesis in virus-infected cervical cancer cell lines. Res Virol. 1992 Sep-Oct;143(5):351–359. doi: 10.1016/s0923-2516(06)80123-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lehtinen M., Hakama M., Aaran R. K., Aromaa A., Knekt P., Leinikki P., Maatela J., Peto R., Teppo L. Herpes simplex virus type 2 infection and cervical cancer: a prospective study of 12 years of follow-up in Finland. Cancer Causes Control. 1992 Jul;3(4):333–338. doi: 10.1007/BF00146886. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Levine A. J. The tumor suppressor genes. Annu Rev Biochem. 1993;62:623–651. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.62.070193.003203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Luo J. H., Aurelian L. The transmembrane helical segment but not the invariant lysine is required for the kinase activity of the large subunit of herpes simplex virus type 2 ribonucleotide reductase (ICP10). J Biol Chem. 1992 May 15;267(14):9645–9653. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Macnab J. C. Transformation of rat embryo cells by temperature-sensitive mutants of herpes simplex virus. J Gen Virol. 1974 Jul;24(1):143–153. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-24-1-143. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Matsukura T., Koi S., Sugase M. Both episomal and integrated forms of human papillomavirus type 16 are involved in invasive cervical cancers. Virology. 1989 Sep;172(1):63–72. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(89)90107-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- McCance D. J., Campion M. J., Clarkson P. K., Chesters P. M., Jenkins D., Singer A. Prevalence of human papillomavirus type 16 DNA sequences in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and invasive carcinoma of the cervix. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1985 Nov;92(11):1101–1105. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1985.tb03019.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- McLauchlan J., Clements J. B. A 3' co-terminus of two early herpes simplex virus type 1 mRNAs. Nucleic Acids Res. 1982 Jan 22;10(2):501–512. doi: 10.1093/nar/10.2.501. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Meyers C., Frattini M. G., Hudson J. B., Laimins L. A. Biosynthesis of human papillomavirus from a continuous cell line upon epithelial differentiation. Science. 1992 Aug 14;257(5072):971–973. doi: 10.1126/science.1323879. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Moodie S. A., Wolfman A. The 3Rs of life: Ras, Raf and growth regulation. Trends Genet. 1994 Feb;10(2):44–48. doi: 10.1016/0168-9525(94)90147-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Naib Z. M., Nahmias A. J., Josey W. E., Kramer J. H. Genital herpetic infection. Association with cervical dysplasia and carcinoma. Cancer. 1969 Apr;23(4):940–945. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(196904)23:4<940::aid-cncr2820230432>3.0.co;2-e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Neel B. G., Jhanwar S. C., Chaganti R. S., Hayward W. S. Two human c-onc genes are located on the long arm of chromosome 8. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982 Dec;79(24):7842–7846. doi: 10.1073/pnas.79.24.7842. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nikas I., McLauchlan J., Davison A. J., Taylor W. R., Clements J. B. Structural features of ribonucleotide reductase. Proteins. 1986 Dec;1(4):376–384. doi: 10.1002/prot.340010411. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ocadiz R., Sauceda R., Cruz M., Graef A. M., Gariglio P. High correlation between molecular alterations of the c-myc oncogene and carcinoma of the uterine cervix. Cancer Res. 1987 Aug 1;47(15):4173–4177. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pater M. M., Pater A. Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 sequences in carcinoma cell lines of the cervix. Virology. 1985 Sep;145(2):313–318. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(85)90164-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Peng H. Q., Liu S. L., Mann V., Rohan T., Rawls W. Human papillomavirus types 16 and 33, herpes simplex virus type 2 and other risk factors for cervical cancer in Sichuan Province, China. Int J Cancer. 1991 Mar 12;47(5):711–716. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910470515. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Peter M., Herskowitz I. Joining the complex: cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitory proteins and the cell cycle. Cell. 1994 Oct 21;79(2):181–184. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(94)90186-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Phelps W. C., Bagchi S., Barnes J. A., Raychaudhuri P., Kraus V., Münger K., Howley P. M., Nevins J. R. Analysis of trans activation by human papillomavirus type 16 E7 and adenovirus 12S E1A suggests a common mechanism. J Virol. 1991 Dec;65(12):6922–6930. doi: 10.1128/jvi.65.12.6922-6930.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pilon L., Langelier Y., Royal A. Herpes simplex virus type 2 mutagenesis: characterization of mutants induced at the hprt locus of nonpermissive XC cells. Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Aug;6(8):2977–2983. doi: 10.1128/mcb.6.8.2977. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pirisi L., Yasumoto S., Feller M., Doniger J., DiPaolo J. A. Transformation of human fibroblasts and keratinocytes with human papillomavirus type 16 DNA. J Virol. 1987 Apr;61(4):1061–1066. doi: 10.1128/jvi.61.4.1061-1066.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ransone L. J., Verma I. M. Nuclear proto-oncogenes fos and jun. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1990;6:539–557. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.06.110190.002543. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rawls W. E., Tompkins W. A., Melnick J. L. The association of herpesvirus type 2 and carcinoma of the uterine cervix. Am J Epidemiol. 1969 May;89(5):547–554. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120967. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rotkin I. D. A comparison review of key epidemiological studies in cervical cancer related to current searches for transmissible agents. Cancer Res. 1973 Jun;33(6):1353–1367. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Russell S. E., Lowry W. S., Atkinson R. J., Hickey I. Homozygosity of the short arm of chromosome 17 in cervical carcinoma. Cancer Lett. 1992 Apr 30;63(3):243–247. doi: 10.1016/0304-3835(92)90267-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- STICH H. F., VANHOOSIER G. L., TRENTIN J. J. VIRUSES AND MAMMALIAN CHROMOSOMES; CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS BY HUMAN ADENOVIRUS TYPE 12. Exp Cell Res. 1964 Apr;34:400–403. doi: 10.1016/0014-4827(64)90375-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Scheffner M., Werness B. A., Huibregtse J. M., Levine A. J., Howley P. M. The E6 oncoprotein encoded by human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 promotes the degradation of p53. Cell. 1990 Dec 21;63(6):1129–1136. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90409-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schlehofer J. R., Hausen J. Z. Induction of mutations within the host cell genome by partially inactivated herpes simplex virus type 1. Virology. 1982 Oct 30;122(2):471–475. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(82)90247-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schlehofer J. R., Heilbronn R., Georg-Fries B., zur Hausen H. Inhibition of initiator-induced SV40 gene amplification in SV40-transformed Chinese hamster cells by infection with a defective parvovirus. Int J Cancer. 1983 Nov 15;32(5):591–595. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910320512. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sedman S. A., Barbosa M. S., Vass W. C., Hubbert N. L., Haas J. A., Lowy D. R., Schiller J. T. The full-length E6 protein of human papillomavirus type 16 has transforming and trans-activating activities and cooperates with E7 to immortalize keratinocytes in culture. J Virol. 1991 Sep;65(9):4860–4866. doi: 10.1128/jvi.65.9.4860-4866.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Skinner G. R. Transformation of primary hamster embryo fibroblasts by type 2 simplex virus: evidence for a "hit and run" mechanism. Br J Exp Pathol. 1976 Aug;57(4):361–376. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smith C. C., Kulka M., Wymer J. P., Chung T. D., Aurelian L. Expression of the large subunit of herpes simplex virus type 2 ribonucleotide reductase (ICP10) is required for virus growth and neoplastic transformation. J Gen Virol. 1992 Jun;73(Pt 6):1417–1428. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-73-6-1417. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smith C. C., Luo J. H., Hunter J. C., Ordonez J. V., Aurelian L. The transmembrane domain of the large subunit of HSV-2 ribonucleotide reductase (ICP10) is required for protein kinase activity and transformation-related signaling pathways that result in ras activation. Virology. 1994 May 1;200(2):598–612. doi: 10.1006/viro.1994.1223. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smith C. C., Wymer J. P., Luo J., Aurelian L. Genomic sequences homologous to the protein kinase region of the bifunctional herpes simplex virus type 2 protein ICP10. Virus Genes. 1991 Jul;5(3):215–226. doi: 10.1007/BF00568971. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stark G. R., Wahl G. M. Gene amplification. Annu Rev Biochem. 1984;53:447–491. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.53.070184.002311. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stavraky K. M., Rawls W. E., Chiavetta J., Donner A. P., Wanklin J. M. Sexual and socioeconomic factors affecting the risk of past infections with herpes simplex virus type 2. Am J Epidemiol. 1983 Jul;118(1):109–121. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113612. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stirdivant S. M., Huber H. E., Patrick D. R., Defeo-Jones D., McAvoy E. M., Garsky V. M., Oliff A., Heimbrook D. C. Human papillomavirus type 16 E7 protein inhibits DNA binding by the retinoblastoma gene product. Mol Cell Biol. 1992 May;12(5):1905–1914. doi: 10.1128/mcb.12.5.1905. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Swain M. A., Galloway D. A. Herpes simplex virus specifies two subunits of ribonucleotide reductase encoded by 3'-coterminal transcripts. J Virol. 1986 Mar;57(3):802–808. doi: 10.1128/jvi.57.3.802-808.1986. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sze P., Herman R. C. The herpes simplex virus type 1 ICP6 gene is regulated by a 'leaky' early promoter. Virus Res. 1992 Nov;26(2):141–152. doi: 10.1016/0168-1702(92)90153-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Vernon S. D., Icenogle J. P., Johnson P. R., Reeves W. C. Human papillomavirus, human immunodeficiency virus, and cervical cancer: newly recognized associations? Infect Agents Dis. 1992 Dec;1(6):319–324. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wagatsuma M., Hashimoto K., Matsukura T. Analysis of integrated human papillomavirus type 16 DNA in cervical cancers: amplification of viral sequences together with cellular flanking sequences. J Virol. 1990 Feb;64(2):813–821. doi: 10.1128/jvi.64.2.813-821.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Welch P. J., Wang J. Y. A C-terminal protein-binding domain in the retinoblastoma protein regulates nuclear c-Abl tyrosine kinase in the cell cycle. Cell. 1993 Nov 19;75(4):779–790. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90497-e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wentz W. B., Heggie A. D., Anthony D. D., Reagan J. W. Effect of prior immunization on induction of cervial cancer in mice by herpes simplex virus type 2. Science. 1983 Dec 9;222(4628):1128–1129. doi: 10.1126/science.6316503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wentz W. B., Reagan J. W., Heggie A. D., Fu Y. S., Anthony D. D. Induction of uterine cancer with inactivated herpes simplex virus, types 1 and 2. Cancer. 1981 Oct 15;48(8):1783–1790. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(19811015)48:8<1783::aid-cncr2820480815>3.0.co;2-w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Woodworth C. D., Doniger J., DiPaolo J. A. Immortalization of human foreskin keratinocytes by various human papillomavirus DNAs corresponds to their association with cervical carcinoma. J Virol. 1989 Jan;63(1):159–164. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.1.159-164.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wymer J. P., Aprhys C. M., Chung T. D., Feng C. P., Kulka M., Aurelian L. Immediate early and functional AP-1 cis-response elements are involved in the transcriptional regulation of the large subunit of herpes simplex virus type 2 ribonucleotide reductase (ICP10). Virus Res. 1992 May;23(3):253–270. doi: 10.1016/0168-1702(92)90112-m. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wymer J. P., Aurelian L. Papillomavirus trans-activator protein E2 activates expression from the promoter for the ribonucleotide reductase large subunit from herpes simplex virus type 2. J Gen Virol. 1990 Aug;71(Pt 8):1817–1821. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-71-8-1817. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wymer J. P., Chung T. D., Chang Y. N., Hayward G. S., Aurelian L. Identification of immediate-early-type cis-response elements in the promoter for the ribonucleotide reductase large subunit from herpes simplex virus type 2. J Virol. 1989 Jun;63(6):2773–2784. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.6.2773-2784.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yoshikawa H., Matsukura T., Yamamoto E., Kawana T., Mizuno M., Yoshiike K. Occurrence of human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 DNA in cervical carcinomas from Japan: age of patients and histological type of carcinomas. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1985 Aug;76(8):667–671. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- de Sanjosé S., Muñoz N., Bosch F. X., Reimann K., Pedersen N. S., Orfila J., Ascunce N., González L. C., Tafur L., Gili M. Sexually transmitted agents and cervical neoplasia in Colombia and Spain. Int J Cancer. 1994 Feb 1;56(3):358–363. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910560311. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- zur Hausen H. Human genital cancer: synergism between two virus infections or synergism between a virus infection and initiating events? Lancet. 1982 Dec 18;2(8312):1370–1372. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(82)91273-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]