Skip to main content
Clinical Microbiology Reviews logoLink to Clinical Microbiology Reviews
. 1997 Oct;10(4):585–596. doi: 10.1128/cmr.10.4.585

Prospects for the development of fungal vaccines.

G S Deepe Jr 1
PMCID: PMC172935  PMID: 9336663

Abstract

In an era that emphasizes the term "cost-effective," vaccines are the ideal solution to preventing disease at a relatively low cost to society. Much of the previous emphasis has been on childhood scourges such as measles, mumps, rubella, poliomyelitis, and Haemophilus influenzae type b. The concept of vaccines for fungal diseases has had less impact because of the perceived limited problem. However, fungal diseases have become increasingly appreciated as serious medical problems that require recognition and aggressive management. The escalation in the incidence and prevalence of infection has prompted a renewed interest in vaccine development. Herein, I discuss the most recent developments in the search for vaccines to combat fungal infections. Investigators have discovered several inert substances from various fungi that can mediate protection in animal models. The next challenge will be to find the suitable mode of delivery for these immunogens.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (209.4 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Afonso L. C., Scharton T. M., Vieira L. Q., Wysocka M., Trinchieri G., Scott P. The adjuvant effect of interleukin-12 in a vaccine against Leishmania major. Science. 1994 Jan 14;263(5144):235–237. doi: 10.1126/science.7904381. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Allendoerfer R., Maresca B., Deepe G. S., Jr Cellular immune responses to recombinant heat shock protein 70 from Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect Immun. 1996 Oct;64(10):4123–4128. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.10.4123-4128.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Balish E., Vazquez-Torres F. A., Jones-Carson J., Wagner R. D., Warner T. Importance of beta2-microglobulin in murine resistance to mucosal and systemic candidiasis. Infect Immun. 1996 Dec;64(12):5092–5097. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.12.5092-5097.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Barry M. A., Lai W. C., Johnston S. A. Protection against mycoplasma infection using expression-library immunization. Nature. 1995 Oct 19;377(6550):632–635. doi: 10.1038/377632a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Beaman L. V., Pappagianis D., Benjamini E. Mechanisms of resistance to infection with Coccidioides immitis in mice. Infect Immun. 1979 Mar;23(3):681–685. doi: 10.1128/iai.23.3.681-685.1979. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Beck J. M., Newbury R. L., Palmer B. E., Warnock M. L., Byrd P. K., Kaltreider H. B. Role of CD8+ lymphocytes in host defense against Pneumocystis carinii in mice. J Lab Clin Med. 1996 Nov;128(5):477–487. doi: 10.1016/s0022-2143(96)90044-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Beno D. W., Stöver A. G., Mathews H. L. Growth inhibition of Candida albicans hyphae by CD8+ lymphocytes. J Immunol. 1995 May 15;154(10):5273–5281. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Biron C. A. Cytokines in the generation of immune responses to, and resolution of, virus infection. Curr Opin Immunol. 1994 Aug;6(4):530–538. doi: 10.1016/0952-7915(94)90137-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Brummer E., Morozumi P. A., Vo P. T., Stevens D. A. Protection against pulmonary blastomycosis: adoptive transfer with T lymphocytes, but not serum, from resistant mice. Cell Immunol. 1982 Nov 1;73(2):349–359. doi: 10.1016/0008-8749(82)90461-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Casadevall A. Antibody immunity and invasive fungal infections. Infect Immun. 1995 Nov;63(11):4211–4218. doi: 10.1128/iai.63.11.4211-4218.1995. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Casadevall A., DeShaw M., Fan M., Dromer F., Kozel T. R., Pirofski L. A. Molecular and idiotypic analysis of antibodies to Cryptococcus neoformans glucuronoxylomannan. Infect Immun. 1994 Sep;62(9):3864–3872. doi: 10.1128/iai.62.9.3864-3872.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Casadevall A., Mukherjee J., Devi S. J., Schneerson R., Robbins J. B., Scharff M. D. Antibodies elicited by a Cryptococcus neoformans-tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine have the same specificity as those elicited in infection. J Infect Dis. 1992 Jun;165(6):1086–1093. doi: 10.1093/infdis/165.6.1086. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Casadevall A., Scharff M. D. Serum therapy revisited: animal models of infection and development of passive antibody therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994 Aug;38(8):1695–1702. doi: 10.1128/aac.38.8.1695. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Cassone A., Palma C., Djeu J. Y., Aiuti F., Quinti I. Anticandidal activity and interleukin-1 beta and interleukin-6 production by polymorphonuclear leukocytes are preserved in subjects with AIDS. J Clin Microbiol. 1993 May;31(5):1354–1357. doi: 10.1128/jcm.31.5.1354-1357.1993. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Chicz R. M., Urban R. G., Lane W. S., Gorga J. C., Stern L. J., Vignali D. A., Strominger J. L. Predominant naturally processed peptides bound to HLA-DR1 are derived from MHC-related molecules and are heterogeneous in size. Nature. 1992 Aug 27;358(6389):764–768. doi: 10.1038/358764a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cisalpino P. S., Puccia R., Yamauchi L. M., Cano M. I., da Silveira J. F., Travassos L. R. Cloning, characterization, and epitope expression of the major diagnostic antigen of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. J Biol Chem. 1996 Feb 23;271(8):4553–4560. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.8.4553. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Condon C., Watkins S. C., Celluzzi C. M., Thompson K., Falo L. D., Jr DNA-based immunization by in vivo transfection of dendritic cells. Nat Med. 1996 Oct;2(10):1122–1128. doi: 10.1038/nm1096-1122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Cox R. A., Kennell W., Boncyk L., Murphy J. W. Induction and expression of cell-mediated immune responses in inbred mice infected with Coccidioides immitis. Infect Immun. 1988 Jan;56(1):13–17. doi: 10.1128/iai.56.1.13-17.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. De Cock A. W., Mendoza L., Padhye A. A., Ajello L., Kaufman L. Pythium insidiosum sp. nov., the etiologic agent of pythiosis. J Clin Microbiol. 1987 Feb;25(2):344–349. doi: 10.1128/jcm.25.2.344-349.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Deepe G. S., Jr, Durose G. G. Immunobiological activity of recombinant H antigen from Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect Immun. 1995 Aug;63(8):3151–3157. doi: 10.1128/iai.63.8.3151-3157.1995. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Deepe G. S., Jr, Gibbons R., Brunner G. D., Gomez F. J. A protective domain of heat-shock protein 60 from Histoplasma capsulatum. J Infect Dis. 1996 Oct;174(4):828–834. doi: 10.1093/infdis/174.4.828. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Deepe G. S., Jr Role of CD8+ T cells in host resistance to systemic infection with Histoplasma capsulatum in mice. J Immunol. 1994 Apr 1;152(7):3491–3500. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Dempsey P. W., Allison M. E., Akkaraju S., Goodnow C. C., Fearon D. T. C3d of complement as a molecular adjuvant: bridging innate and acquired immunity. Science. 1996 Jan 19;271(5247):348–350. doi: 10.1126/science.271.5247.348. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Devi S. J. Preclinical efficacy of a glucuronoxylomannan-tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine of Cryptococcus neoformans in a murine model. Vaccine. 1996 Jun;14(9):841–844. doi: 10.1016/0264-410x(95)00256-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Devi S. J., Schneerson R., Egan W., Ulrich T. J., Bryla D., Robbins J. B., Bennett J. E. Cryptococcus neoformans serotype A glucuronoxylomannan-protein conjugate vaccines: synthesis, characterization, and immunogenicity. Infect Immun. 1991 Oct;59(10):3700–3707. doi: 10.1128/iai.59.10.3700-3707.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Djeu J. Y., Blanchard D. K., Richards A. L., Friedman H. Tumor necrosis factor induction by Candida albicans from human natural killer cells and monocytes. J Immunol. 1988 Dec 1;141(11):4047–4052. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Djeu J. Y., Serbousek D., Blanchard D. K. Release of tumor necrosis factor by human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Blood. 1990 Oct 1;76(7):1405–1409. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Doe B., Selby M., Barnett S., Baenziger J., Walker C. M. Induction of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by intramuscular immunization with plasmid DNA is facilitated by bone marrow-derived cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Aug 6;93(16):8578–8583. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.16.8578. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Dugger K. O., Villareal K. M., Ngyuen A., Zimmermann C. R., Law J. H., Galgiani J. N. Cloning and sequence analysis of the cDNA for a protein from Coccidioides immitis with immunogenic potential. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1996 Jan 17;218(2):485–489. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1996.0086. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Fearon D. T., Locksley R. M. The instructive role of innate immunity in the acquired immune response. Science. 1996 Apr 5;272(5258):50–53. doi: 10.1126/science.272.5258.50. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Feltquate D. M., Heaney S., Webster R. G., Robinson H. L. Different T helper cell types and antibody isotypes generated by saline and gene gun DNA immunization. J Immunol. 1997 Mar 1;158(5):2278–2284. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Fraser V. J., Jones M., Dunkel J., Storfer S., Medoff G., Dunagan W. C. Candidemia in a tertiary care hospital: epidemiology, risk factors, and predictors of mortality. Clin Infect Dis. 1992 Sep;15(3):414–421. doi: 10.1093/clind/15.3.414. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Galgiani J. N., Peng T., Lewis M. L., Cloud G. A., Pappagianis D. Cerebrospinal fluid antibodies detected by ELISA against a 33-kDa antigen from spherules of Coccidioides immitis in patients with coccidioidal meningitis. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1996 Feb;173(2):499–502. doi: 10.1093/infdis/173.2.499. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Garcia J. P., Howard D. H. Characterization of antigens from the yeast phase of Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect Immun. 1971 Aug;4(2):116–125. doi: 10.1128/iai.4.2.116-125.1971. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Gomez A. M., Bullock W. E., Taylor C. L., Deepe G. S., Jr Role of L3T4+ T cells in host defense against Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect Immun. 1988 Jul;56(7):1685–1691. doi: 10.1128/iai.56.7.1685-1691.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Gomez F. J., Allendoerfer R., Deepe G. S., Jr Vaccination with recombinant heat shock protein 60 from Histoplasma capsulatum protects mice against pulmonary histoplasmosis. Infect Immun. 1995 Jul;63(7):2587–2595. doi: 10.1128/iai.63.7.2587-2595.1995. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Gomez F. J., Gomez A. M., Deepe G. S., Jr An 80-kilodalton antigen from Histoplasma capsulatum that has homology to heat shock protein 70 induces cell-mediated immune responses and protection in mice. Infect Immun. 1992 Jul;60(7):2565–2571. doi: 10.1128/iai.60.7.2565-2571.1992. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Gomez F. J., Gomez A. M., Deepe G. S., Jr Protective efficacy of a 62-kilodalton antigen, HIS-62, from the cell wall and cell membrane of Histoplasma capsulatum yeast cells. Infect Immun. 1991 Dec;59(12):4459–4464. doi: 10.1128/iai.59.12.4459-4464.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Gupta R. K., Siber G. R. Adjuvants for human vaccines--current status, problems and future prospects. Vaccine. 1995 Oct;13(14):1263–1276. doi: 10.1016/0264-410x(95)00011-o. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Gómez A. M., Rhodes J. C., Deepe G. S., Jr Antigenicity and immunogenicity of an extract from the cell wall and cell membrane of Histoplasma capsulatum yeast cells. Infect Immun. 1991 Jan;59(1):330–336. doi: 10.1128/iai.59.1.330-336.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Han Y., Cutler J. E. Antibody response that protects against disseminated candidiasis. Infect Immun. 1995 Jul;63(7):2714–2719. doi: 10.1128/iai.63.7.2714-2719.1995. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Harrison T. S., Levitz S. M. Role of IL-12 in peripheral blood mononuclear cell responses to fungi in persons with and without HIV infection. J Immunol. 1996 Jun 1;156(11):4492–4497. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Hill J. O., Harmsen A. G. Intrapulmonary growth and dissemination of an avirulent strain of Cryptococcus neoformans in mice depleted of CD4+ or CD8+ T cells. J Exp Med. 1991 Mar 1;173(3):755–758. doi: 10.1084/jem.173.3.755. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Hogan L. H., Josvai S., Klein B. S. Genomic cloning, characterization, and functional analysis of the major surface adhesin WI-1 on Blastomyces dermatitidis yeasts. J Biol Chem. 1995 Dec 22;270(51):30725–30732. doi: 10.1074/jbc.270.51.30725. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Huffnagle G. B., Yates J. L., Lipscomb M. F. Immunity to a pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection requires both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. J Exp Med. 1991 Apr 1;173(4):793–800. doi: 10.1084/jem.173.4.793. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Jackson L. A., Opdebeeck J. P. Quil A and ISCOMs as adjuvants for midgut membrane antigens of Boophilus microplus. Appl Parasitol. 1994 Jun;35(2):87–98. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Kaufmann S. H., Väth U., Thole J. E., Van Embden J. D., Emmrich F. Enumeration of T cells reactive with Mycobacterium tuberculosis organisms and specific for the recombinant mycobacterial 64-kDa protein. Eur J Immunol. 1987 Mar;17(3):351–357. doi: 10.1002/eji.1830170308. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Kirkland T. N., Fierer J. Genetic control of resistance to Coccidioides immitis: a single gene that is expressed in spleen cells determines resistance. J Immunol. 1985 Jul;135(1):548–552. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Kirkland T. N., Zhu S. W., Kruse D., Hsu L. L., Seshan K. R., Cole G. T. Coccidioides immitis fractions which are antigenic for immune T lymphocytes. Infect Immun. 1991 Nov;59(11):3952–3961. doi: 10.1128/iai.59.11.3952-3961.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Klein B. S., Hogan L. H., Jones J. M. Immunologic recognition of a 25-amino acid repeat arrayed in tandem on a major antigen of Blastomyces dermatitidis. J Clin Invest. 1993 Jul;92(1):330–337. doi: 10.1172/JCI116571. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Klein B. S., Jones J. M. Purification and characterization of the major antigen WI-1 from Blastomyces dermatitidis yeasts and immunological comparison with A antigen. Infect Immun. 1994 Sep;62(9):3890–3900. doi: 10.1128/iai.62.9.3890-3900.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Klein E., Mantovani A. Action of natural killer cells and macrophages in cancer. Curr Opin Immunol. 1993 Oct;5(5):714–718. doi: 10.1016/0952-7915(93)90126-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Kong Y. C., Levine H. B. Experimentally induced immunity in the mycoses. Bacteriol Rev. 1967 Mar;31(1):35–53. doi: 10.1128/br.31.1.35-53.1967. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Lecara G., Cox R. A., Simpson R. B. Coccidioides immitis vaccine: potential of an alkali-soluble, water-soluble cell wall antigen. Infect Immun. 1983 Jan;39(1):473–475. doi: 10.1128/iai.39.1.473-475.1983. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Levitz S. M., Dupont M. P., Smail E. H. Direct activity of human T lymphocytes and natural killer cells against Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun. 1994 Jan;62(1):194–202. doi: 10.1128/iai.62.1.194-202.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Levitz S. M., Mathews H. L., Murphy J. W. Direct antimicrobial activity of T cells. Immunol Today. 1995 Aug;16(8):387–391. doi: 10.1016/0167-5699(95)80007-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Levitz S. M., Tabuni A., Kornfeld H., Reardon C. C., Golenbock D. T. Production of tumor necrosis factor alpha in human leukocytes stimulated by Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun. 1994 May;62(5):1975–1981. doi: 10.1128/iai.62.5.1975-1981.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Lipford G. B., Wagner H., Heeg K. Vaccination with immunodominant peptides encapsulated in Quil A-containing liposomes induces peptide-specific primary CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. Vaccine. 1994 Jan;12(1):73–80. doi: 10.1016/0264-410x(94)90013-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Lloyd A. R., Oppenheim J. J. Poly's lament: the neglected role of the polymorphonuclear neutrophil in the afferent limb of the immune response. Immunol Today. 1992 May;13(5):169–172. doi: 10.1016/0167-5699(92)90121-M. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Medoff G., Sacco M., Maresca B., Schlessinger D., Painter A., Kobayashi G. S., Carratu L. Irreversible block of the mycelial-to-yeast phase transition of Histoplasma capsulatum. Science. 1986 Jan 31;231(4737):476–479. doi: 10.1126/science.3001938. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Mencacci A., Spaccapelo R., Del Sero G., Enssle K. H., Cassone A., Bistoni F., Romani L. CD4+ T-helper-cell responses in mice with low-level Candida albicans infection. Infect Immun. 1996 Dec;64(12):4907–4914. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.12.4907-4914.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Mencacci A., Torosantucci A., Spaccapelo R., Romani L., Bistoni F., Cassone A. A mannoprotein constituent of Candida albicans that elicits different levels of delayed-type hypersensitivity, cytokine production, and anticandidal protection in mice. Infect Immun. 1994 Dec;62(12):5353–5360. doi: 10.1128/iai.62.12.5353-5360.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Mendoza L., Villalobos J., Calleja C. E., Solis A. Evaluation of two vaccines for the treatment of pythiosis insidiosi in horses. Mycopathologia. 1992 Aug;119(2):89–95. doi: 10.1007/BF00443939. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Miller R. I. Treatment of equine phycomycosis by immunotherapy and surgery. Aust Vet J. 1981 Aug;57(8):377–382. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1981.tb00526.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Modlin R. L., Segal G. P., Hofman F. M., Walley M. S., Johnson R. H., Taylor C. R., Rea T. H. In situ localization of T lymphocytes in disseminated coccidioidomycosis. J Infect Dis. 1985 Feb;151(2):314–319. doi: 10.1093/infdis/151.2.314. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Mody C. H., Chen G. H., Jackson C., Curtis J. L., Toews G. B. Depletion of murine CD8+ T cells in vivo decreases pulmonary clearance of a moderately virulent strain of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Lab Clin Med. 1993 Jun;121(6):765–773. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Mody C. H., Sims K. L., Wood C. J., Syme R. M., Spurrell J. C., Sexton M. M. Proteins in the cell wall and membrane of Cryptococcus neoformans stimulate lymphocytes from both adults and fetal cord blood to proliferate. Infect Immun. 1996 Nov;64(11):4811–4819. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.11.4811-4819.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Morein B., Sundquist B., Höglund S., Dalsgaard K., Osterhaus A. Iscom, a novel structure for antigenic presentation of membrane proteins from enveloped viruses. 1984 Mar 29-Apr 4Nature. 308(5958):457–460. doi: 10.1038/308457a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Morrison L. A., Lukacher A. E., Braciale V. L., Fan D. P., Braciale T. J. Differences in antigen presentation to MHC class I-and class II-restricted influenza virus-specific cytolytic T lymphocyte clones. J Exp Med. 1986 Apr 1;163(4):903–921. doi: 10.1084/jem.163.4.903. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Muchmore H. G., Felton F. G., Salvin S. B., Rhoades E. R. Delayed hypersensitivity to cryptococcin in man. Sabouraudia. 1968 Oct;6(4):285–288. doi: 10.1080/00362176885190561. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Mukherjee J., Scharff M. D., Casadevall A. Cryptococcus neoformans infection can elicit protective antibodies in mice. Can J Microbiol. 1994 Oct;40(10):888–892. doi: 10.1139/m94-141. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Mukherjee J., Zuckier L. S., Scharff M. D., Casadevall A. Therapeutic efficacy of monoclonal antibodies to Cryptococcus neoformans glucuronoxylomannan alone and in combination with amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994 Mar;38(3):580–587. doi: 10.1128/aac.38.3.580. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Mukherjee S., Lee S., Mukherjee J., Scharff M. D., Casadevall A. Monoclonal antibodies to Cryptococcus neoformans capsular polysaccharide modify the course of intravenous infection in mice. Infect Immun. 1994 Mar;62(3):1079–1088. doi: 10.1128/iai.62.3.1079-1088.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Murphy J. W., Hidore M. R., Wong S. C. Direct interactions of human lymphocytes with the yeast-like organism, Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Invest. 1993 Apr;91(4):1553–1566. doi: 10.1172/JCI116361. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Newman S. L., Chaturvedi S., Klein B. S. The WI-1 antigen of Blastomyces dermatitidis yeasts mediates binding to human macrophage CD11b/CD18 (CR3) and CD14. J Immunol. 1995 Jan 15;154(2):753–761. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. O'Riordan D. M., Standing J. E., Limper A. H. Pneumocystis carinii glycoprotein A binds macrophage mannose receptors. Infect Immun. 1995 Mar;63(3):779–784. doi: 10.1128/iai.63.3.779-784.1995. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Palma C., Serbousek D., Torosantucci A., Cassone A., Djeu J. Y. Identification of a mannoprotein fraction from Candida albicans that enhances human polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNL) functions and stimulates lactoferrin in PMNL inhibition of candidal growth. J Infect Dis. 1992 Nov;166(5):1103–1112. doi: 10.1093/infdis/166.5.1103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Pappagianis D. Evaluation of the protective efficacy of the killed Coccidioides immitis spherule vaccine in humans. The Valley Fever Vaccine Study Group. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Sep;148(3):656–660. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/148.3.656. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Pishko E. J., Kirkland T. N., Cole G. T. Isolation and characterization of two chitinase-encoding genes (cts1, cts2) from the fungus Coccidioides immitis. Gene. 1995 Dec 29;167(1-2):173–177. doi: 10.1016/0378-1119(95)00654-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Reiner S. L., Locksley R. M. The regulation of immunity to Leishmania major. Annu Rev Immunol. 1995;13:151–177. doi: 10.1146/annurev.iy.13.040195.001055. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Retini C., Vecchiarelli A., Monari C., Tascini C., Bistoni F., Kozel T. R. Capsular polysaccharide of Cryptococcus neoformans induces proinflammatory cytokine release by human neutrophils. Infect Immun. 1996 Aug;64(8):2897–2903. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.8.2897-2903.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Salgame P., Abrams J. S., Clayberger C., Goldstein H., Convit J., Modlin R. L., Bloom B. R. Differing lymphokine profiles of functional subsets of human CD4 and CD8 T cell clones. Science. 1991 Oct 11;254(5029):279–282. doi: 10.1126/science.254.5029.279. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Schimpff S. C., Bennett J. E. Abnormalities in cell-mediated immunity in patients with Cryptococcus neoformans infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1975 Jun;55(6):430–441. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(75)90082-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Seder R. A., Paul W. E. Acquisition of lymphokine-producing phenotype by CD4+ T cells. Annu Rev Immunol. 1994;12:635–673. doi: 10.1146/annurev.iy.12.040194.003223. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Segal E. Vaccines against fungal infections. Crit Rev Microbiol. 1987;14(3):229–271. doi: 10.3109/10408418709104440. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Stanberry L. R. Herpes simplex virus vaccines as immunotherapeutic agents. Trends Microbiol. 1995 Jun;3(6):244–247. doi: 10.1016/s0966-842x(00)88933-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Sundstrom P., Jensen J., Balish E. Humoral and cellular immune responses to enolase after alimentary tract colonization or intravenous immunization with Candida albicans. J Infect Dis. 1994 Aug;170(2):390–395. doi: 10.1093/infdis/170.2.390. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Tao M. H., Levy R. Idiotype/granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor fusion protein as a vaccine for B-cell lymphoma. Nature. 1993 Apr 22;362(6422):755–758. doi: 10.1038/362755a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Tascon R. E., Colston M. J., Ragno S., Stavropoulos E., Gregory D., Lowrie D. B. Vaccination against tuberculosis by DNA injection. Nat Med. 1996 Aug;2(8):888–892. doi: 10.1038/nm0896-888. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Tewari R. P., Sharma D. K., Mathur A. Significance of thymus-derived lymphocytes in immunity elicited by immunization with ribosomes or live yeast cells of Histoplasma capsulatum. J Infect Dis. 1978 Nov;138(5):605–613. doi: 10.1093/infdis/138.5.605. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Theus S. A., Andrews R. P., Steele P., Walzer P. D. Adoptive transfer of lymphocytes sensitized to the major surface glycoprotein of Pneumocystis carinii confers protection in the rat. J Clin Invest. 1995 Jun;95(6):2587–2593. doi: 10.1172/JCI117960. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Travassos L. R., Puccia R., Cisalpino P., Taborda C., Rodrigues E. G., Rodrigues M., Silveira J. F., Almeida I. C. Biochemistry and molecular biology of the main diagnostic antigen of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Arch Med Res. 1995 Autumn;26(3):297–304. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Ulmer J. B., Donnelly J. J., Parker S. E., Rhodes G. H., Felgner P. L., Dwarki V. J., Gromkowski S. H., Deck R. R., DeWitt C. M., Friedman A. Heterologous protection against influenza by injection of DNA encoding a viral protein. Science. 1993 Mar 19;259(5102):1745–1749. doi: 10.1126/science.8456302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Vicentini A. P., Gesztesi J. L., Franco M. F., de Souza W., de Moraes J. Z., Travassos L. R., Lopes J. D. Binding of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis to laminin through surface glycoprotein gp43 leads to enhancement of fungal pathogenesis. Infect Immun. 1994 Apr;62(4):1465–1469. doi: 10.1128/iai.62.4.1465-1469.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Vitiello A., Ishioka G., Grey H. M., Rose R., Farness P., LaFond R., Yuan L., Chisari F. V., Furze J., Bartholomeuz R. Development of a lipopeptide-based therapeutic vaccine to treat chronic HBV infection. I. Induction of a primary cytotoxic T lymphocyte response in humans. J Clin Invest. 1995 Jan;95(1):341–349. doi: 10.1172/JCI117662. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Wyckoff E. E., Pishko E. J., Kirkland T. N., Cole G. T. Cloning and expression of a gene encoding a T-cell reactive protein from Coccidioides immitis: homology to 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase and the mammalian F antigen. Gene. 1995 Aug 8;161(1):107–111. doi: 10.1016/0378-1119(95)00250-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Yang C., Zhu Y., Magee D. M., Cox R. A. Molecular cloning and characterization of the Coccidioides immitis complement fixation/chitinase antigen. Infect Immun. 1996 Jun;64(6):1992–1997. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.6.1992-1997.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Yewdell J. W., Bennink J. R. Cell biology of antigen processing and presentation to major histocompatibility complex class I molecule-restricted T lymphocytes. Adv Immunol. 1992;52:1–123. doi: 10.1016/s0065-2776(08)60875-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Zhang H., Zhong Z., Pirofski L. A. Peptide epitopes recognized by a human anti-cryptococcal glucuronoxylomannan antibody. Infect Immun. 1997 Apr;65(4):1158–1164. doi: 10.1128/iai.65.4.1158-1164.1997. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Zheng B., Brett S. J., Tite J. P., Lifely M. R., Brodie T. A., Rhodes J. Galactose oxidation in the design of immunogenic vaccines. Science. 1992 Jun 12;256(5063):1560–1563. doi: 10.1126/science.1598588. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Zhong Z., Pirofski L. A. Opsonization of Cryptococcus neoformans by human anticryptococcal glucuronoxylomannan antibodies. Infect Immun. 1996 Sep;64(9):3446–3450. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.9.3446-3450.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Zhu Y., Yang C., Magee D. M., Cox R. A. Molecular cloning and characterization of Coccidioides immitis antigen 2 cDNA. Infect Immun. 1996 Jul;64(7):2695–2699. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.7.2695-2699.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Zimmermann C. R., Johnson S. M., Martens G. W., White A. G., Pappagianis D. Cloning and expression of the complement fixation antigen-chitinase of Coccidioides immitis. Infect Immun. 1996 Dec;64(12):4967–4975. doi: 10.1128/iai.64.12.4967-4975.1996. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Clinical Microbiology Reviews are provided here courtesy of American Society for Microbiology (ASM)

RESOURCES