Abstract
Objectives: For many decades chlorination has been used as a major disinfectant process for public drinking and swimming pool water in many countries. However, there has been rising concern over the possible link between disinfectant byproducts (DBPs) and adverse reproductive outcomes. The purpose of this study was to estimate the concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in some indoor swimming pools in London and their variation within and between pools and any correlation with other factors.
Methods: Water samples were collected from eight different indoor swimming pools in London. A total of 44 pool samples were collected and analysed for total organic content (TOC) and THMs. Water and air temperature were measured along with the pH during the collection of pool samples. The level of turbulence and the number of people in the pool at the time were also assessed.
Results: The geometric mean concentration for all swimming pools of TOC was 5.8 mg/l, of total THMs (TTHMs) 132.4 µg/l, and for chloroform 113.3 µg/l. There was a clear positive linear correlation between the number of people in the swimming pool and concentrations of TTHMs and chloroform (r=0.7, p<0.01), and a good correlation between concentrations of TOC and TTHMs (r=0.5, p<0.05) and water temperature and concentrations of TTHMs (r=0.5, p<0.01). There was a larger variation in THMs within pools than between pools.
Conclusion: Relatively high concentrations of THMs were found in London's indoor swimming pools. The levels correlated with the number of people in the pool, water temperature, and TOC. The variation in concentrations of THMs was greater within pools than between pools.
Full Text
The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (152.1 KB).
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Aggazzotti G., Fantuzzi G., Righi E., Predieri G. Blood and breath analyses as biological indicators of exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools. Sci Total Environ. 1998 Jun 30;217(1-2):155–163. doi: 10.1016/s0048-9697(98)00174-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Aggazzotti G., Fantuzzi G., Righi E., Predieri G. Environmental and biological monitoring of chloroform in indoor swimming pools. J Chromatogr A. 1995 Aug 25;710(1):181–190. doi: 10.1016/0021-9673(95)00432-m. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Aggazzotti G., Fantuzzi G., Righi E., Tartoni P., Cassinadri T., Predieri G. Chloroform in alveolar air of individuals attending indoor swimming pools. Arch Environ Health. 1993 Jul-Aug;48(4):250–254. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1993.9940368. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Aggazzotti G., Fantuzzi G., Tartoni P. L., Predieri G. Plasma chloroform concentrations in swimmers using indoor swimming pools. Arch Environ Health. 1990 May-Jun;45(3):175–179. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1990.9936712. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Aiking H., van Acker M. B., Scholten R. J., Feenstra J. F., Valkenburg H. A. Swimming pool chlorination: a health hazard? Toxicol Lett. 1994 Jun;72(1-3):375–380. doi: 10.1016/0378-4274(94)90051-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cammann K., Hübner K. Trihalomethane concentrations in swimmers' and bath attendants' blood and urine after swimming or working in indoor swimming pools. Arch Environ Health. 1995 Jan-Feb;50(1):61–65. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1995.9955013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jo W. K., Weisel C. P., Lioy P. J. Chloroform exposure and the health risk associated with multiple uses of chlorinated tap water. Risk Anal. 1990 Dec;10(4):581–585. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1990.tb00542.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lindstrom A. B., Pleil J. D., Berkoff D. C. Alveolar breath sampling and analysis to assess trihalomethane exposures during competitive swimming training. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Jun;105(6):636–642. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105636. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lévesque B., Ayotte P., LeBlanc A., Dewailly E., Prud'Homme D., Lavoie R., Allaire S., Levallois P. Evaluation of dermal and respiratory chloroform exposure in humans. Environ Health Perspect. 1994 Dec;102(12):1082–1087. doi: 10.1289/ehp.102-1567469. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nieuwenhuijsen M. J., Toledano M. B., Eaton N. E., Fawell J., Elliott P. Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: a review. Occup Environ Med. 2000 Feb;57(2):73–85. doi: 10.1136/oem.57.2.73. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nieuwenhuijsen M. J., Toledano M. B., Elliott P. Uptake of chlorination disinfection by-products; a review and a discussion of its implications for exposure assessment in epidemiological studies. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2000 Nov-Dec;10(6 Pt 1):586–599. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500139. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Weisel C. P., Jo W. K. Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposures to chloroform and trichloroethene from tap water. Environ Health Perspect. 1996 Jan;104(1):48–51. doi: 10.1289/ehp.9610448. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]