Skip to main content
PMC home page
Occupational and Environmental Medicine logoLink to Occupational and Environmental Medicine
. 2005 Jun;62(6):400–405. doi: 10.1136/oem.2004.016469

Atrazine in municipal drinking water and risk of low birth weight, preterm delivery, and small-for-gestational-age status

C Villanueva 1, G Durand 1, M Coutte 1, C Chevrier 1, S Cordier 1
PMCID: PMC1741023  PMID: 15901888

Abstract

Background: Atrazine is a herbicide used extensively worldwide. Bioassays have shown that it is embryotoxic and embryolethal. Evidence of adverse reproductive outcomes from exposure in the general population is sparse.

Aims: To evaluate the association between atrazine levels in municipal drinking water and the following adverse reproductive outcomes: increased risk of preterm delivery, low birth weight (LBW), and small-for-gestational-age (SGA) status.

Methods: A total of 3510 births that took place from 1 October 1997, to 30 September 1998 were analysed. Atrazine measurements were available for 2661 samples from water treatment plants over the past decade. A seasonal pattern was identified, with atrazine peaking from May to September. The geometric mean of the atrazine level for this period was calculated for each water distribution unit and merged with the individual data by municipality of residence.

Results: Atrazine levels in water were not associated with an increased risk of LBW or SGA status and were slightly associated with prematurity. There was an increased risk of SGA status in cases in which the third trimester overlapped in whole or in part with the May–September period, compared with those in which the third trimester occurred totally from October to April (OR = 1.37, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.81). If the entire third trimester took place from May to September, the OR was 1.54 (95% CI 1.11 to 2.13).

Conclusions: Low levels of atrazine, a narrow exposure range, and limitations in the exposure assessment partly explain the lack of associations with atrazine. Findings point to the third trimester of pregnancy as the potential vulnerable period for an increased risk of SGA birth. Exposures other than atrazine and also seasonal factors may explain the increased risk.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (82.1 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Arbuckle T. E., Lin Z., Mery L. S. An exploratory analysis of the effect of pesticide exposure on the risk of spontaneous abortion in an Ontario farm population. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Aug;109(8):851–857. doi: 10.1289/ehp.01109851. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Baibergenova Akerke, Kudyakov Rustam, Zdeb Michael, Carpenter David O. Low birth weight and residential proximity to PCB-contaminated waste sites. Environ Health Perspect. 2003 Aug;111(10):1352–1357. doi: 10.1289/ehp.6053. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Birnbaum Linda S., Fenton Suzanne E. Cancer and developmental exposure to endocrine disruptors. Environ Health Perspect. 2003 Apr;111(4):389–394. doi: 10.1289/ehp.5686. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Blanchoud Hélène, Garban Brigitte, Ollivon Donatienne, Chevreuil Marc. Herbicides and nitrogen in precipitation: progression from west to east and contribution to the Marne river (France). Chemosphere. 2002 Jun;47(9):1025–1031. doi: 10.1016/s0045-6535(02)00057-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bobak M. Outdoor air pollution, low birth weight, and prematurity. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 Feb;108(2):173–176. doi: 10.1289/ehp.00108173. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bove Frank, Shim Youn, Zeitz Perri. Drinking water contaminants and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a review. Environ Health Perspect. 2002 Feb;110 (Suppl 1):61–74. doi: 10.1289/ehp.02110s161. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Catenacci G., Maroni M., Cottica D., Pozzoli L. Assessment of human exposure to atrazine through the determination of free atrazine in urine. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1990 Jan;44(1):1–7. doi: 10.1007/BF01702354. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Christin M. S., Ménard L., Gendron A. D., Ruby S., Cyr D., Marcogliese D. J., Rollins-Smith L., Fournier M. Effects of agricultural pesticides on the immune system of Xenopus laevis and Rana pipiens. Aquat Toxicol. 2004 Mar 30;67(1):33–43. doi: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2003.11.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Dejmek J., Selevan S. G., Benes I., Solanský I., Srám R. J. Fetal growth and maternal exposure to particulate matter during pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Jun;107(6):475–480. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107475. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Dejmek J., Solanský I., Benes I., Lenícek J., Srám R. J. The impact of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and fine particles on pregnancy outcome. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 Dec;108(12):1159–1164. doi: 10.1289/ehp.001081159. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Graves C. G., Matanoski G. M., Tardiff R. G. Weight of evidence for an association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and exposure to disinfection by-products: a critical review. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2001 Oct;34(2):103–124. doi: 10.1006/rtph.2001.1494. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Hayes Tyrone, Haston Kelly, Tsui Mable, Hoang Anhthu, Haeffele Cathryn, Vonk Aaron. Atrazine-induced hermaphroditism at 0.1 ppb in American leopard frogs (Rana pipiens): laboratory and field evidence. Environ Health Perspect. 2003 Apr;111(4):568–575. doi: 10.1289/ehp.5932. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Hayes Tyrone, Haston Kelly, Tsui Mable, Hoang Anhthu, Haeffele Cathryn, Vonk Aaron. Herbicides: feminization of male frogs in the wild. Nature. 2002 Oct 31;419(6910):895–896. doi: 10.1038/419895a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Ikonen R., Kangas J., Savolainen H. Urinary atrazine metabolites as indicators for rat and human exposure to atrazine. Toxicol Lett. 1988 Nov;44(1-2):109–112. doi: 10.1016/0378-4274(88)90136-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Kuang Zhihua, McConnell Laura L., Torrents Alba, Meritt Donald, Tobash Stephanie. Atmospheric deposition of pesticides to an agricultural watershed of the Chesapeake Bay. J Environ Qual. 2003 Sep-Oct;32(5):1611–1622. doi: 10.2134/jeq2003.1611. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Lee B. E., Ha E. H., Park H. S., Kim Y. J., Hong Y. C., Kim H., Lee J. T. Exposure to air pollution during different gestational phases contributes to risks of low birth weight. Hum Reprod. 2003 Mar;18(3):638–643. doi: 10.1093/humrep/deg102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Mamelle N., Munoz F., Grandjean H. Croissance foetale à partir de l'étude AUDIPOG. I. Etablissement de courbes de référence. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris) 1996;25(1):61–70. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Mamelle N., Munoz F., Martin J. L., Laumon B., Grandjean H. Croissance foetale à partir de l'étude AUDIPOG. II. Application au diagnostic de retard de croissance intra-utérin. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris) 1996;25(1):71–77. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. McMichael A. J., Vimpani G. V., Robertson E. F., Baghurst P. A., Clark P. D. The Port Pirie cohort study: maternal blood lead and pregnancy outcome. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1986 Mar;40(1):18–25. doi: 10.1136/jech.40.1.18. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Munger R., Isacson P., Hu S., Burns T., Hanson J., Lynch C. F., Cherryholmes K., Van Dorpe P., Hausler W. J., Jr Intrauterine growth retardation in Iowa communities with herbicide-contaminated drinking water supplies. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Mar;105(3):308–314. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105308. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Nieuwenhuijsen M. J., Toledano M. B., Eaton N. E., Fawell J., Elliott P. Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: a review. Occup Environ Med. 2000 Feb;57(2):73–85. doi: 10.1136/oem.57.2.73. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Quaghebeur D., De Smet B., De Wulf E., Steurbaut W. Pesticides in rainwater in Flanders, Belgium: results from the monitoring program 1997-2001. J Environ Monit. 2004 Feb 16;6(3):182–190. doi: 10.1039/b312558k. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Ritz B., Yu F., Chapa G., Fruin S. Effect of air pollution on preterm birth among children born in Southern California between 1989 and 1993. Epidemiology. 2000 Sep;11(5):502–511. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200009000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Savitz D. A., Arbuckle T., Kaczor D., Curtis K. M. Male pesticide exposure and pregnancy outcome. Am J Epidemiol. 1997 Dec 15;146(12):1025–1036. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009231. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Steinheimer T. R., Scoggin K. D. Fate and movement of atrazine, cyanazine, metolachlor and selected degradation products in water resources of the deep Loess Hills of Southwestern Iowa, USA. J Environ Monit. 2001 Feb;3(1):126–132. doi: 10.1039/b006871n. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Swan Shanna H., Kruse Robin L., Liu Fan, Barr Dana B., Drobnis Erma Z., Redmon J. Bruce, Wang Christina, Brazil Charlene, Overstreet James W., Study for Future Families Research Group Semen quality in relation to biomarkers of pesticide exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 2003 Sep;111(12):1478–1484. doi: 10.1289/ehp.6417. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Van Leeuwen J. A., Waltner-Toews D., Abernathy T., Smit B., Shoukri M. Associations between stomach cancer incidence and drinking water contamination with atrazine and nitrate in Ontario (Canada) agroecosystems, 1987-1991. Int J Epidemiol. 1999 Oct;28(5):836–840. doi: 10.1093/ije/28.5.836. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Wilhelm Michelle, Ritz Beate. Residential proximity to traffic and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles county, California, 1994-1996. Environ Health Perspect. 2003 Feb;111(2):207–216. doi: 10.1289/ehp.5688. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Yang Chun-Yuh, Tseng Yaw-Tseng, Chang Chih-Ching. Effects of air pollution on birth weight among children born between 1995 and 1997 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2003 May 9;66(9):807–816. doi: 10.1080/15287390306385. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Occupational and Environmental Medicine are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES