Skip to main content
Postgraduate Medical Journal logoLink to Postgraduate Medical Journal
. 2000 Dec;76(902):774–782. doi: 10.1136/pmj.76.902.774

Guillain-Barré syndrome

U Seneviratne 1
PMCID: PMC1741839  PMID: 11085768

Abstract

Guillain-Barré syndrome is an autoimmune disorder encompassing a heterogeneous group of pathological and clinical entities. Antecedent infections are thought to trigger an immune response, which subsequently cross reacts with nerves leading to demyelination or axonal degeneration. Both intravenous immunoglobulin treatment and plasma exchange have been found to be equally beneficial. Several factors are useful in predicting the outcome of these patients.


Keywords: Guillain-Barré syndrome

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (148.7 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Ahmad J., Kham A. S., Siddiqui M. A. Estimation of plasma and urinary catecholamines in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Jpn J Med. 1985 Feb;24(1):24–29. doi: 10.2169/internalmedicine1962.24.24. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Allos B. M., Lippy F. T., Carlsen A., Washburn R. G., Blaser M. J. Campylobacter jejuni strains from patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998 Apr-Jun;4(2):263–268. doi: 10.3201/eid0402.980213. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Asbury A. K., Cornblath D. R. Assessment of current diagnostic criteria for Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1990;27 (Suppl):S21–S24. doi: 10.1002/ana.410270707. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Awong I. E., Dandurand K. R., Keeys C. A., Maung-Gyi F. A. Drug-associated Guillain-Barré syndrome: a literature review. Ann Pharmacother. 1996 Feb;30(2):173–180. doi: 10.1177/106002809603000212. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bech E., Orntoft T. F., Andersen L. P., Skinhøj P., Jakobsen J. IgM anti-GM1 antibodies in the Guillain-Barré syndrome: a serological predictor of the clinical course. J Neuroimmunol. 1997 Jan;72(1):59–66. doi: 10.1016/s0165-5728(96)00145-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Beghi E., Kurland L. T., Mulder D. W., Wiederholt W. C. Guillain-Barré syndrome. Clinicoepidemiologic features and effect of influenza vaccine. Arch Neurol. 1985 Nov;42(11):1053–1057. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1985.04060100035016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Berlit P., Rakicky J. The Miller Fisher syndrome. Review of the literature. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1992 Mar;12(1):57–63. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Boucquey D., Sindic C. J., Lamy M., Delmée M., Tomasi J. P., Laterre E. C. Clinical and serological studies in a series of 45 patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Neurol Sci. 1991 Jul;104(1):56–63. doi: 10.1016/0022-510x(91)90216-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bouma P. A., Carpay H. A., Rijpkema S. G. Antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Lancet. 1989 Sep 23;2(8665):739–739. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(89)90797-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Brettle R. P., Gross M., Legg N. J., Lockwood M., Pallis C. Treatment of acute polyneuropathy by plasma exchange. Lancet. 1978 Nov 18;2(8099):1100–1100. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(78)91837-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Brown W. F., Feasby T. E. Conduction block and denervation in Guillain-Barré polyneuropathy. Brain. 1984 Mar;107(Pt 1):219–239. doi: 10.1093/brain/107.1.219. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Byun W. M., Park W. K., Park B. H., Ahn S. H., Hwang M. S., Chang J. C. Guillain-Barré syndrome: MR imaging findings of the spine in eight patients. Radiology. 1998 Jul;208(1):137–141. doi: 10.1148/radiology.208.1.9646804. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Castro L. H., Ropper A. H. Human immune globulin infusion in Guillain-Barré syndrome: worsening during and after treatment. Neurology. 1993 May;43(5):1034–1036. doi: 10.1212/wnl.43.5.1034. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Chiba A., Kusunoki S., Obata H., Machinami R., Kanazawa I. Serum anti-GQ1b IgG antibody is associated with ophthalmoplegia in Miller Fisher syndrome and Guillain-Barré syndrome: clinical and immunohistochemical studies. Neurology. 1993 Oct;43(10):1911–1917. doi: 10.1212/wnl.43.10.1911. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Cornblath D. R., Mellits E. D., Griffin J. W., McKhann G. M., Albers J. W., Miller R. G., Feasby T. E., Quaskey S. A. Motor conduction studies in Guillain-Barré syndrome: description and prognostic value. Ann Neurol. 1988 Apr;23(4):354–359. doi: 10.1002/ana.410230407. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cortelli P., Contin M., Lugaresi A., Baruzzi A., Montagna P. Severe dysautonomic onset of Guillain-Barré syndrome with good recovery. A clinical and autonomic follow-up study. Ital J Neurol Sci. 1990 Apr;11(2):159–162. doi: 10.1007/BF02335559. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Dawson D. M., Samuels M. A., Morris J. Sensory form of acute polyneuritis. Neurology. 1988 Nov;38(11):1728–1731. doi: 10.1212/wnl.38.11.1728. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Dehaene I., Martin J. J., Geens K., Cras P. Guillain-Barré syndrome with ophthalmoplegia: clinicopathologic study of the central and peripheral nervous systems, including the oculomotor nerves. Neurology. 1986 Jun;36(6):851–854. doi: 10.1212/wnl.36.6.851. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. FISHER M. An unusual variant of acute idiopathic polyneuritis (syndrome of ophthalmoplegia, ataxia and areflexia). N Engl J Med. 1956 Jul 12;255(2):57–65. doi: 10.1056/NEJM195607122550201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Feasby T. E., Gilbert J. J., Brown W. F., Bolton C. F., Hahn A. F., Koopman W. F., Zochodne D. W. An acute axonal form of Guillain-Barré polyneuropathy. Brain. 1986 Dec;109(Pt 6):1115–1126. doi: 10.1093/brain/109.6.1115. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Ferraro-Herrera A. S., Kern H. B., Nagler W. Autonomic dysfunction as the presenting feature of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997 Jul;78(7):777–779. doi: 10.1016/s0003-9993(97)90089-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Flachenecker P., Müllges W., Wermuth P., Hartung H. P., Reiners K. Eyeball pressure testing in the evaluation of serious bradyarrhythmias in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Neurology. 1996 Jul;47(1):102–108. doi: 10.1212/wnl.47.1.102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Friedrich F., Filippis A. M., Schatzmayr H. G. Temporal association between the isolation of Sabin-related poliovirus vaccine strains and the Guillain-Barré syndrome. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 1996 Jan-Feb;38(1):55–58. doi: 10.1590/s0036-46651996000100010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Goddard E. A., Lastovica A. J., Argent A. C. Campylobacter 0:41 isolation in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Arch Dis Child. 1997 Jun;76(6):526–528. doi: 10.1136/adc.76.6.526. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Gorson K. C., Ropper A. H., Muriello M. A., Blair R. Prospective evaluation of MRI lumbosacral nerve root enhancement in acute Guillain-Barré syndrome. Neurology. 1996 Sep;47(3):813–817. doi: 10.1212/wnl.47.3.813. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Govoni V., Granieri E., Casetta I., Tola M. R., Paolino E., Fainardi E., Monetti V. C. The incidence of Guillain-Barre syndrome in Ferrara, Italy: is the disease really increasing? J Neurol Sci. 1996 Apr;137(1):62–68. doi: 10.1016/0022-510x(95)00333-w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Griffin J. W., Li C. Y., Ho T. W., Tian M., Gao C. Y., Xue P., Mishu B., Cornblath D. R., Macko C., McKhann G. M. Pathology of the motor-sensory axonal Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1996 Jan;39(1):17–28. doi: 10.1002/ana.410390105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Griffin J. W., Li C. Y., Ho T. W., Xue P., Macko C., Gao C. Y., Yang C., Tian M., Mishu B., Cornblath D. R. Guillain-Barré syndrome in northern China. The spectrum of neuropathological changes in clinically defined cases. Brain. 1995 Jun;118(Pt 3):577–595. doi: 10.1093/brain/118.3.577. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Griffin J. W., Li C. Y., Macko C., Ho T. W., Hsieh S. T., Xue P., Wang F. A., Cornblath D. R., McKhann G. M., Asbury A. K. Early nodal changes in the acute motor axonal neuropathy pattern of the Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Neurocytol. 1996 Jan;25(1):33–51. doi: 10.1007/BF02284784. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Grose C., Spigland I. Guillain-Barré syndrome following administration of live measles vaccine. Am J Med. 1976 Mar;60(3):441–443. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(76)90762-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Hagberg L., Malmvall B. E., Svennerholm L., Alestig K., Norkrans G. Guillain-Barré syndrome as an early manifestation of HIV central nervous system infection. Scand J Infect Dis. 1986;18(6):591–592. doi: 10.3109/00365548609021668. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Hankey G. J. Guillain-Barré syndrome in Western Australia, 1980-1985. Med J Aust. 1987 Feb 2;146(3):130–133. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1987.tb120153.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Hao Q., Saida T., Kuroki S., Nishimura M., Nukina M., Obayashi H., Saida K. Antibodies to gangliosides and galactocerebroside in patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome with preceding Campylobacter jejuni and other identified infections. J Neuroimmunol. 1998 Jan;81(1-2):116–126. doi: 10.1016/s0165-5728(97)00166-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Hemachudha T., Phanuphak P., Johnson R. T., Griffin D. E., Ratanavongsiri J., Siriprasomsup W. Neurologic complications of Semple-type rabies vaccine: clinical and immunologic studies. Neurology. 1987 Apr;37(4):550–556. doi: 10.1212/wnl.37.4.550. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Ho T. W., Mishu B., Li C. Y., Gao C. Y., Cornblath D. R., Griffin J. W., Asbury A. K., Blaser M. J., McKhann G. M. Guillain-Barré syndrome in northern China. Relationship to Campylobacter jejuni infection and anti-glycolipid antibodies. Brain. 1995 Jun;118(Pt 3):597–605. doi: 10.1093/brain/118.3.597. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Honavar M., Tharakan J. K., Hughes R. A., Leibowitz S., Winer J. B. A clinicopathological study of the Guillain-Barré syndrome. Nine cases and literature review. Brain. 1991 Jun;114(Pt 3):1245–1269. doi: 10.1093/brain/114.3.1245. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Hurwitz E. S., Schonberger L. B., Nelson D. B., Holman R. C. Guillain-Barré syndrome and the 1978-1979 influenza vaccine. N Engl J Med. 1981 Jun 25;304(26):1557–1561. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198106253042601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Irani D. N., Cornblath D. R., Chaudhry V., Borel C., Hanley D. F. Relapse in Guillain-Barré syndrome after treatment with human immune globulin. Neurology. 1993 May;43(5):872–875. doi: 10.1212/wnl.43.5.872. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Jacobs B. C., Endtz H., van der Meché F. G., Hazenberg M. P., Achtereekte H. A., van Doorn P. A. Serum anti-GQ1b IgG antibodies recognize surface epitopes on Campylobacter jejuni from patients with Miller Fisher syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1995 Feb;37(2):260–264. doi: 10.1002/ana.410370218. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Jacobs B. C., Rothbarth P. H., van der Meché F. G., Herbrink P., Schmitz P. I., de Klerk M. A., van Doorn P. A. The spectrum of antecedent infections in Guillain-Barré syndrome: a case-control study. Neurology. 1998 Oct;51(4):1110–1115. doi: 10.1212/wnl.51.4.1110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Jacobs B. C., van Doorn P. A., Groeneveld J. H., Tio-Gillen A. P., van der Meché F. G. Cytomegalovirus infections and anti-GM2 antibodies in Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997 Jun;62(6):641–643. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.62.6.641. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Jacobs B. C., van Doorn P. A., Schmitz P. I., Tio-Gillen A. P., Herbrink P., Visser L. H., Hooijkass H., van der Meché F. G. Campylobacter jejuni infections and anti-GM1 antibodies in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1996 Aug;40(2):181–187. doi: 10.1002/ana.410400209. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Jamal G. A., MacLeod W. N. Electrophysiologic studies in Miller Fisher syndrome. Neurology. 1984 May;34(5):685–688. doi: 10.1212/wnl.34.5.685. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Jiang G. X., Cheng Q., Link H., de Pedro-Cuesta J. Epidemiological features of Guillain-Barré syndrome in Sweden, 1978-93. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997 May;62(5):447–453. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.62.5.447. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Jiang G. X., de Pedro-Cuesta J., Fredrikson S. Guillain-Barré syndrome in south-west Stockholm, 1973-1991, 1. Quality of registered hospital diagnoses and incidence. Acta Neurol Scand. 1995 Feb;91(2):109–117. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1995.tb00416.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Jiang G. X., de Pedro-Cuesta J., Strigård K., Olsson T., Link H. Pregnancy and Guillain-Barré syndrome: a nationwide register cohort study. Neuroepidemiology. 1996;15(4):192–200. doi: 10.1159/000109907. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Kanter M. E., Nori S. L. Sensory Guillain-Barré syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1995 Sep;76(9):882–883. doi: 10.1016/s0003-9993(95)80557-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Kaplan J. E., Katona P., Hurwitz E. S., Schonberger L. B. Guillain-Barré syndrome in the United States, 1979-1980 and 1980-1981. Lack of an association with influenza vaccination. JAMA. 1982 Aug 13;248(6):698–700. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Kinnunen E., Färkkilä M., Hovi T., Juntunen J., Weckström P. Incidence of Guillain-Barré syndrome during a nationwide oral poliovirus vaccine campaign. Neurology. 1989 Aug;39(8):1034–1036. doi: 10.1212/wnl.39.8.1034. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Kinnunen E., Junttila O., Haukka J., Hovi T. Nationwide oral poliovirus vaccination campaign and the incidence of Guillain-Barré Syndrome. Am J Epidemiol. 1998 Jan 1;147(1):69–73. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009369. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Kleyweg R. P., van der Meché F. G., Meulstee J. Treatment of Guillain-Barré syndrome with high-dose gammaglobulin. Neurology. 1988 Oct;38(10):1639–1641. doi: 10.1212/wnl.38.10.1639. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Korinthenberg R., Mönting J. S. Natural history and treatment effects in Guillain-Barré syndrome: a multicentre study. Arch Dis Child. 1996 Apr;74(4):281–287. doi: 10.1136/adc.74.4.281. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Kornberg A. J., Pestronk A., Blume G. M., Lopate G., Yue J., Hahn A. Selective staining of the cerebellar molecular layer by serum IgG in Miller-Fisher and related syndromes. Neurology. 1996 Nov;47(5):1317–1320. doi: 10.1212/wnl.47.5.1317. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Kuroki S., Saida T., Nukina M., Haruta T., Yoshioka M., Kobayashi Y., Nakanishi H. Campylobacter jejuni strains from patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome belong mostly to Penner serogroup 19 and contain beta-N-acetylglucosamine residues. Ann Neurol. 1993 Mar;33(3):243–247. doi: 10.1002/ana.410330304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Kuwabara S., Ogawara K., Koga M., Mori M., Hattori T., Yuki N. Hyperreflexia in Guillain-Barré syndrome: relation with acute motor axonal neuropathy and anti-GM1 antibody. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999 Aug;67(2):180–184. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.67.2.180. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Langmuir A. D., Bregman D. J., Kurland L. T., Nathanson N., Victor M. An epidemiologic and clinical evaluation of Guillain-Barré syndrome reported in association with the administration of swine influenza vaccines. Am J Epidemiol. 1984 Jun;119(6):841–879. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113809. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Lasky T., Terracciano G. J., Magder L., Koski C. L., Ballesteros M., Nash D., Clark S., Haber P., Stolley P. D., Schonberger L. B. The Guillain-Barré syndrome and the 1992-1993 and 1993-1994 influenza vaccines. N Engl J Med. 1998 Dec 17;339(25):1797–1802. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199812173392501. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. McKhann G. M., Cornblath D. R., Griffin J. W., Ho T. W., Li C. Y., Jiang Z., Wu H. S., Zhaori G., Liu Y., Jou L. P. Acute motor axonal neuropathy: a frequent cause of acute flaccid paralysis in China. Ann Neurol. 1993 Apr;33(4):333–342. doi: 10.1002/ana.410330402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. McLean M., Duclos P., Jacob P., Humphreys P. Incidence of Guillain-Barré syndrome in Ontario and Quebec, 1983-1989, using hospital service databases. Epidemiology. 1994 Jul;5(4):443–448. doi: 10.1097/00001648-199407000-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. McMahon B. J., Helminiak C., Wainwright R. B., Bulkow L., Trimble B. A., Wainwright K. Frequency of adverse reactions to hepatitis B vaccine in 43,618 persons. Am J Med. 1992 Mar;92(3):254–256. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(92)90073-k. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Mishu B., Ilyas A. A., Koski C. L., Vriesendorp F., Cook S. D., Mithen F. A., Blaser M. J. Serologic evidence of previous Campylobacter jejuni infection in patients with the Guillain-Barré syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1993 Jun 15;118(12):947–953. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-118-12-199306150-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Mokuno K., Kiyosawa K., Sugimura K., Yasuda T., Riku S., Murayama T., Yanagi T., Takahashi A., Kato K. Prognostic value of cerebrospinal fluid neuron-specific enolase and S-100b protein in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Acta Neurol Scand. 1994 Jan;89(1):27–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Morris K., Rylance G. Guillain-Barré syndrome after measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine. Lancet. 1994 Jan 1;343(8888):60–60. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90917-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Moulin D. E., Hagen N., Feasby T. E., Amireh R., Hahn A. Pain in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Neurology. 1997 Feb;48(2):328–331. doi: 10.1212/wnl.48.2.328. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Nachamkin I., Allos B. M., Ho T. Campylobacter species and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998 Jul;11(3):555–567. doi: 10.1128/cmr.11.3.555. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Newton N., Jr, Janati A. Guillain-Barré syndrome after vaccination with purified tetanus toxoid. South Med J. 1987 Aug;80(8):1053–1054. doi: 10.1097/00007611-198708000-00028. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Ng K. K., Howard R. S., Fish D. R., Hirsch N. P., Wiles C. M., Murray N. M., Miller D. H. Management and outcome of severe Guillain-Barré syndrome. QJM. 1995 Apr;88(4):243–250. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Ohtsuka K., Nakamura Y., Hashimoto M., Tagawa Y., Takahashi M., Saito K., Yuki N. Fisher syndrome associated with IgG anti-GQ1b antibody following infection by a specific serotype of Campylobacter jejuni. Ophthalmology. 1998 Jul;105(7):1281–1285. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(98)97034-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Olivé J. M., Castillo C., Castro R. G., de Quadros C. A. Epidemiologic study of Guillain-Barré syndrome in children <15 years of age in Latin America. J Infect Dis. 1997 Feb;175 (Suppl 1):S160–S164. doi: 10.1093/infdis/175.supplement_1.s160. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Oomes P. G., van der Meché F. G., Kleyweg R. P. Liver function disturbances in Guillain-Barré syndrome: a prospective longitudinal study in 100 patients. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group. Neurology. 1996 Jan;46(1):96–100. doi: 10.1212/wnl.46.1.96. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Panegyres P. K., Mastaglia F. L. Guillain-Barré syndrome with involvement of the central and autonomic nervous systems. Med J Aust. 1989 Jun 5;150(11):655–659. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1989.tb136732.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Petty R. K., Duncan R., Jamal G. A., Hadley D., Kennedy P. G. Brainstem encephalitis and the Miller Fisher syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993 Feb;56(2):201–203. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.56.2.201. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Rantala H., Cherry J. D., Shields W. D., Uhari M. Epidemiology of Guillain-Barré syndrome in children: relationship of oral polio vaccine administration to occurrence. J Pediatr. 1994 Feb;124(2):220–223. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(94)70307-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Rees J. H., Soudain S. E., Gregson N. A., Hughes R. A. Campylobacter jejuni infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1995 Nov 23;333(21):1374–1379. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199511233332102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Rees J. H., Thompson R. D., Smeeton N. C., Hughes R. A. Epidemiological study of Guillain-Barré syndrome in south east England. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998 Jan;64(1):74–77. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.64.1.74. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Roberts M., Willison H., Vincent A., Newsom-Davis J. Serum factor in Miller-Fisher variant of Guillain-Barré syndrome and neurotransmitter release. Lancet. 1994 Feb 19;343(8895):454–455. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92694-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Ropper A. H., Shahani B. Proposed mechanism of ataxia in Fisher's syndrome. Arch Neurol. 1983 Sep;40(9):537–538. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1983.04050080037004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Ropper A. H. The Guillain-Barré syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1992 Apr 23;326(17):1130–1136. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199204233261706. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Ropper A. H. Unusual clinical variants and signs in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Arch Neurol. 1986 Nov;43(11):1150–1152. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1986.00520110044012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Roscelli J. D., Bass J. W., Pang L. Guillain-Barré syndrome and influenza vaccination in the US Army, 1980-1988. Am J Epidemiol. 1991 May 1;133(9):952–955. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115974. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Safranek T. J., Lawrence D. N., Kurland L. T., Culver D. H., Wiederholt W. C., Hayner N. S., Osterholm M. T., O'Brien P., Hughes J. M. Reassessment of the association between Guillain-Barré syndrome and receipt of swine influenza vaccine in 1976-1977: results of a two-state study. Expert Neurology Group. Am J Epidemiol. 1991 May 1;133(9):940–951. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115973. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Schonberger L. B., Bregman D. J., Sullivan-Bolyai J. Z., Keenlyside R. A., Ziegler D. W., Retailliau H. F., Eddins D. L., Bryan J. A. Guillain-Barre syndrome following vaccination in the National Influenza Immunization Program, United States, 1976--1977. Am J Epidemiol. 1979 Aug;110(2):105–123. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112795. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Sedano M. J., Calleja J., Canga E., Berciano J. Guillain-Barré syndrome in Cantabria, Spain. An epidemiological and clinical study. Acta Neurol Scand. 1994 Apr;89(4):287–292. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1994.tb01682.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Shaw F. E., Jr, Graham D. J., Guess H. A., Milstien J. B., Johnson J. M., Schatz G. C., Hadler S. C., Kuritsky J. N., Hiner E. E., Bregman D. J. Postmarketing surveillance for neurologic adverse events reported after hepatitis B vaccination. Experience of the first three years. Am J Epidemiol. 1988 Feb;127(2):337–352. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114808. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Sheikh K. A., Nachamkin I., Ho T. W., Willison H. J., Veitch J., Ung H., Nicholson M., Li C. Y., Wu H. S., Shen B. Q. Campylobacter jejuni lipopolysaccharides in Guillain-Barré syndrome: molecular mimicry and host susceptibility. Neurology. 1998 Aug;51(2):371–378. doi: 10.1212/wnl.51.2.371. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Singh N. K., Jaiswal A. K., Misra S., Srivastava P. K. Assessment of autonomic dysfunction in Guillain-Barré syndrome and its prognostic implications. Acta Neurol Scand. 1987 Feb;75(2):101–105. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1987.tb07902.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Stricker B. H., van der Klauw M. M., Ottervanger J. P., van der Meché F. G. A case-control study of drugs and other determinants as potential causes of Guillain-Barré syndrome. J Clin Epidemiol. 1994 Oct;47(10):1203–1210. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(94)90108-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Thornton C. A., Latif A. S., Emmanuel J. C. Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection in Zimbabwe. Neurology. 1991 Jun;41(6):812–815. doi: 10.1212/wnl.41.6.812. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Tuohy P. G. Guillain-Barré syndrome following immunisation with synthetic hepatitis B vaccine. N Z Med J. 1989 Mar 8;102(863):114–115. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Tuttle J., Chen R. T., Rantala H., Cherry J. D., Rhodes P. H., Hadler S. The risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome after tetanus-toxoid-containing vaccines in adults and children in the United States. Am J Public Health. 1997 Dec;87(12):2045–2048. doi: 10.2105/ajph.87.12.2045. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Vedeler C. A., Wik E., Nyland H. The long-term prognosis of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Evaluation of prognostic factors including plasma exchange. Acta Neurol Scand. 1997 May;95(5):298–302. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1997.tb00214.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Visser L. H., van der Meché F. G., Meulstee J., Rothbarth P. P., Jacobs B. C., Schmitz P. I., van Doorn P. A. Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group. Neurology. 1996 Sep;47(3):668–673. doi: 10.1212/wnl.47.3.668. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Visser L. H., van der Meché F. G., Meulstee J., van Doorn P. A. Risk factors for treatment related clinical fluctuations in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Dutch Guillain-Barré study group. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998 Feb;64(2):242–244. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.64.2.242. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Winer J. B., Hughes R. A., Anderson M. J., Jones D. M., Kangro H., Watkins R. P. A prospective study of acute idiopathic neuropathy. II. Antecedent events. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988 May;51(5):613–618. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.51.5.613. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Winer J. B., Hughes R. A. Identification of patients at risk of arrhythmia in the Guillain-Barré syndrome. Q J Med. 1988 Sep;68(257):735–739. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Winer J. B., Hughes R. A., Osmond C. A prospective study of acute idiopathic neuropathy. I. Clinical features and their prognostic value. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988 May;51(5):605–612. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.51.5.605. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Yuki N., Hirata K. Preserved tendon reflexes in Campylobacter neuropathy. Ann Neurol. 1998 Apr;43(4):546–547. doi: 10.1002/ana.410430424. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Yuki N., Tagawa Y. Acute cytomegalovirus infection and IgM anti-GM2 antibody. J Neurol Sci. 1998 Jan 21;154(1):14–17. doi: 10.1016/s0022-510x(97)00174-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Yuki N., Takahashi M., Tagawa Y., Kashiwase K., Tadokoro K., Saito K. Association of Campylobacter jejuni serotype with antiganglioside antibody in Guillain-Barré syndrome and Fisher's syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1997 Jul;42(1):28–33. doi: 10.1002/ana.410420107. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Yuki N., Taki T., Inagaki F., Kasama T., Takahashi M., Saito K., Handa S., Miyatake T. A bacterium lipopolysaccharide that elicits Guillain-Barré syndrome has a GM1 ganglioside-like structure. J Exp Med. 1993 Nov 1;178(5):1771–1775. doi: 10.1084/jem.178.5.1771. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. da Silveira C. M., Salisbury D. M., de Quadros C. A. Measles vaccination and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Lancet. 1997 Jan 4;349(9044):14–16. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)07408-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. de Jager A. E., Sluiter H. J. Clinical signs in severe Guillain-Barré syndrome: analysis of 63 patients. J Neurol Sci. 1991 Aug;104(2):143–150. doi: 10.1016/0022-510x(91)90303-o. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. de Pedro-Cuesta J., Abraira V., Jiang G. X., Solders G., Fredrikson S. Guillain-Barré syndrome in South-West Stockholm, 1973-1991, 3. Clinicoepidemiological subgroups. Acta Neurol Scand. 1996 Feb-Mar;93(2-3):175–183. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1996.tb00195.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Postgraduate Medical Journal are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES