Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Postgraduate Medical Journal logoLink to Postgraduate Medical Journal
. 2002 Apr;78(918):205–215. doi: 10.1136/pmj.78.918.205

Japanese viral encephalitis

S Tiroumourougane 1, P Raghava 1, S Srinivasan 1
PMCID: PMC1742334  PMID: 11930023

Abstract

One of the leading causes of acute encephalopathy in children in the tropics is Japanese encephalitis (JE). Transmitted by the culex mosquito, this neurotropic virus predominately affects the thalamus, anterior horns of the spinal cord, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum. It mainly affects children <15 years and is mostly asymptomatic. The occasional symptomatic child typically presents with a neurological syndrome characterised by altered sensorium, seizures, and features of intracranial hypertension. Aetiological diagnosis is based on virus isolation or demonstration of virus specific antigen or antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid/blood. Though no antiviral drug is available against JE, effective supportive management can improve the outcome. Control of JE involves efficient vector control and appropriate use of vaccines.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (255.3 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Abe T., Kojima K., Shoji H., Tanaka N., Fujimoto K., Uchida M., Nishimura H., Hayabuchi N., Norbash A. M. Japanese encephalitis. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1998 Jul-Aug;8(4):755–761. doi: 10.1002/jmri.1880080402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Aihara H., Takasaki T., Toyosaki-Maeda T., Suzuki R., Okuno Y., Kurane I. T-cell activation and induction of antibodies and memory T cells by immunization with inactivated Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Viral Immunol. 2000;13(2):179–186. doi: 10.1089/vim.2000.13.179. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Andersen M. M., Rønne T. Side-effects with Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Lancet. 1991 Apr 27;337(8748):1044–1044. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(91)92707-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Benenson M. W., Top F. H., Jr, Gresso W., Ames C. W., Altstatt L. B. The virulence to man of Japanese encephalitis virus in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1975 Nov;24(6 Pt 1):974–980. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1975.24.974. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bingaman W. E., Frank J. I. Malignant cerebral edema and intracranial hypertension. Neurol Clin. 1995 Aug;13(3):479–509. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bullock R. Mannitol and other diuretics in severe neurotrauma. New Horiz. 1995 Aug;3(3):448–452. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Burke D. S., Lorsomrudee W., Leake C. J., Hoke C. H., Nisalak A., Chongswasdi V., Laorakpongse T. Fatal outcome in Japanese encephalitis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1985 Nov;34(6):1203–1210. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1985.34.1203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Burke D. S., Nisalak A., Ussery M. A. Antibody capture immunoassay detection of japanese encephalitis virus immunoglobulin m and g antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol. 1982 Dec;16(6):1034–1042. doi: 10.1128/jcm.16.6.1034-1042.1982. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Burke D. S., Nisalak A., Ussery M. A., Laorakpongse T., Chantavibul S. Kinetics of IgM and IgG responses to Japanese encephalitis virus in human serum and cerebrospinal fluid. J Infect Dis. 1985 Jun;151(6):1093–1099. doi: 10.1093/infdis/151.6.1093. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Chambers T. J., Hahn C. S., Galler R., Rice C. M. Flavivirus genome organization, expression, and replication. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1990;44:649–688. doi: 10.1146/annurev.mi.44.100190.003245. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Chang H. C., Takashima I., Arikawa J., Hashimoto N. Biotin-labeled antigen sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (BLA-S-ELISA) for the detection of Japanese encephalitis antibody in human and a variety of animal sera. J Immunol Methods. 1984 Sep 4;72(2):401–409. doi: 10.1016/0022-1759(84)90008-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Chow L., Sun H. C., Chen H. Y., Lin S. Y., Wu J. S. Detection and differentiation of dengue-1 from Japanese encephalitis virus infections by ABC MAC-ELISA. Zhonghua Min Guo Wei Sheng Wu Ji Mian Yi Xue Za Zhi. 1992 Aug;25(3):172–180. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Clasen R. A., Pandolfi S., Laing I., Casey D., Jr Experimental study of relation of fever to cerebral edema. J Neurosurg. 1974 Nov;41(5):576–581. doi: 10.3171/jns.1974.41.5.0576. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Czernicki Z., Kunicki A., Rycembel Z., Jurkiewicz J. Ciśnienie osmotyczne surowicy krwi u chorych leczonych furosemidem i hipertonicznym roztworem mannitolu. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 1976 Nov-Dec;10(6):787–791. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Deng Y. C., Su X. C., Feng Y. Q. [Immunocytochemical study of mononuclear cells in peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Japanese B encephalitis]. Zhonghua Bing Li Xue Za Zhi. 1994 Feb;23(1):20–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Desai A., Chandramuki A., Gourie-Devi M., Ravi V. Detection of Japanese encephalitis virus antigens in the CSF using monoclonal antibodies. Clin Diagn Virol. 1994 Jun;2(3):191–199. doi: 10.1016/0928-0197(94)90022-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Desai A., Ravi V., Guru S. C., Shankar S. K., Kaliaperumal V. G., Chandramuki A., Gourie-Devi M. Detection of autoantibodies to neural antigens in the CSF of Japanese encephalitis patients and correlation of findings with the outcome. J Neurol Sci. 1994 Mar;122(1):109–116. doi: 10.1016/0022-510x(94)90060-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Desai A., Shankar S. K., Jayakumar P. N., Chandramuki A., Gourie-Devi M., Ravikumar B. V., Ravi V. Co-existence of cerebral cysticercosis with Japanese encephalitis: a prognostic modulator. Epidemiol Infect. 1997 Apr;118(2):165–171. doi: 10.1017/s0950268896007327. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Edelman R., Schneider R. J., Vejjajiva A., Pornpibul R., Voodhikul P. Persistence of virus-specific IgM and clinical recovery after Japanese encephalitis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1976 Sep;25(5):733–738. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1976.25.733. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Fishman R. A. Brain edema. N Engl J Med. 1975 Oct 2;293(14):706–711. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197510022931407. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Gajanana A., Rajendran R., Thenmozhi V., Samuel P. P., Tsai T. F., Reuben R. Comparative evaluation of bioassay and ELISA for detection of Japanese encephalitis virus in field collected mosquitos. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1995 Mar;26(1):91–97. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Ghajar J., Hariri R. J. Management of pediatric head injury. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1992 Oct;39(5):1093–1125. doi: 10.1016/s0031-3955(16)38409-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Goh K. J., Tan C. T., Chew N. K., Tan P. S., Kamarulzaman A., Sarji S. A., Wong K. T., Abdullah B. J., Chua K. B., Lam S. K. Clinical features of Nipah virus encephalitis among pig farmers in Malaysia. N Engl J Med. 2000 Apr 27;342(17):1229–1235. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200004273421701. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Goitein K. J., Tamir I. Cerebral perfusion pressure in central nervous system infections of infancy and childhood. J Pediatr. 1983 Jul;103(1):40–43. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(83)80772-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Greenwald B. M., Ghajar J., Notterman D. A. Critical care of children with acute brain injury. Adv Pediatr. 1995;42:47–89. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. HALSTEAD S. B., GROSZ C. R. Subclinical Japanese encephalitis. I. Infection of Americans with limited residence in Korea. Am J Hyg. 1962 Mar;75:190–201. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Hanna J. N., Ritchie S. A., Phillips D. A., Shield J., Bailey M. C., Mackenzie J. S., Poidinger M., McCall B. J., Mills P. J. An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in the Torres Strait, Australia, 1995. Med J Aust. 1996 Sep 2;165(5):256–260. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124960.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Harinasuta C., Wasi C., Vithanomsat S. The effect of interferon on Japanese encephalitis virus in vitro. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1984 Dec;15(4):564–568. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Hase T., Summers P. L., Dubois D. R. Ultrastructural changes of mouse brain neurons infected with Japanese encephalitis virus. Int J Exp Pathol. 1990 Aug;71(4):493–505. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Heinz F. X. Epitope mapping of flavivirus glycoproteins. Adv Virus Res. 1986;31:103–168. doi: 10.1016/s0065-3527(08)60263-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Hennessy S., Liu Z., Tsai T. F., Strom B. L., Wan C. M., Liu H. L., Wu T. X., Yu H. J., Liu Q. M., Karabatsos N. Effectiveness of live-attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine (SA14-14-2): a case-control study. Lancet. 1996 Jun 8;347(9015):1583–1586. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)91075-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Hill A. B., Müllbacher A., Parrish C., Coia G., Westaway E. G., Blanden R. V. Broad cross-reactivity with marked fine specificity in the cytotoxic T cell response to flaviviruses. J Gen Virol. 1992 May;73(Pt 5):1115–1123. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-73-5-1115. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Hoke C. H., Jr, Vaughn D. W., Nisalak A., Intralawan P., Poolsuppasit S., Jongsawas V., Titsyakorn U., Johnson R. T. Effect of high-dose dexamethasone on the outcome of acute encephalitis due to Japanese encephalitis virus. J Infect Dis. 1992 Apr;165(4):631–637. doi: 10.1093/infdis/165.4.631. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Hoke C. H., Nisalak A., Sangawhipa N., Jatanasen S., Laorakapongse T., Innis B. L., Kotchasenee S., Gingrich J. B., Latendresse J., Fukai K. Protection against Japanese encephalitis by inactivated vaccines. N Engl J Med. 1988 Sep 8;319(10):608–614. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198809083191004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Huang C. H. Studies of Japanese encephalitis in China. Adv Virus Res. 1982;27:71–101. doi: 10.1016/s0065-3527(08)60433-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Jennett W. B., Harper A. M., Miller J. D., Rowan J. O. Relation between cerebral blood-flow and cerebral perfusion pressure. Br J Surg. 1970 May;57(5):390–390. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Jia F. L., Huang Z. X. [Cell-mediated immunity in mice infected with Japanese encephalitis virus. II. Passive transfer of immune spleen T cells for life protection in infected mice]. Zhongguo Yi Xue Ke Xue Yuan Xue Bao. 1983 Feb;5(1):68–69. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Kalita J., Das B. K., Misra U. K. SPECT studies of regional cerebral blood flow in 8 patients with Japanese encephalitis in subacute and chronic stage. Acta Neurol Scand. 1999 Apr;99(4):213–218. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1999.tb07349.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Kalita J., Misra U. K. Comparison of CT scan and MRI findings in the diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis. J Neurol Sci. 2000 Mar 1;174(1):3–8. doi: 10.1016/s0022-510x(99)00318-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Kalita J., Misra U. K. EEG in Japanese encephalitis: a clinico-radiological correlation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1998 Mar;106(3):238–243. doi: 10.1016/s0013-4694(97)00123-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Kaufmann A. M., Cardoso E. R. Aggravation of vasogenic cerebral edema by multiple-dose mannitol. J Neurosurg. 1992 Oct;77(4):584–589. doi: 10.3171/jns.1992.77.4.0584. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Kedarnath N., Prasad S. R., Dandawate C. N., Koshy A. A., George S., Ghosh S. N. Isolation of Japanese encephalitis & West Nile viruses from peripheral blood of encephalitis patients. Indian J Med Res. 1984 Jan;79:1–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Kelkar S. D., Banerjee K. Cross reactions among flaviviruses in macrophage migration inhibition assay. Acta Virol. 1978 Jul;22(4):337–340. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Kimura-Kuroda J., Yasui K. Protection of mice against Japanese encephalitis virus by passive administration with monoclonal antibodies. J Immunol. 1988 Nov 15;141(10):3606–3610. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Kimura K., Dosaka A., Hashimoto Y., Yasunaga T., Uchino M., Ando M. Single-photon emission CT findings in acute Japanese encephalitis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1997 Mar;18(3):465–469. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Kulkarni A. B., Mullbacher A., Blanden R. V. In vitro T-cell proliferative response to the flavivirus, west Nile. Viral Immunol. 1991 Summer;4(2):73–82. doi: 10.1089/vim.1991.4.73. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Kumar R., Mathur A., Kumar A., Sharma S., Chakraborty S., Chaturvedi U. C. Clinical features & prognostic indicators of Japanese encephalitis in children in Lucknow (India). Indian J Med Res. 1990 Sep;91:321–327. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Kumar R., Mathur A., Kumar A., Sharma S., Saksena P. N., Chaturvedi U. C. Japanese encephalitis--an important cause of acute childhood encephalopathy in Lucknow, India. Postgrad Med J. 1988 Jan;64(747):18–22. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.64.747.18. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. LINCOLN A. F., SIVERTSON S. E. Acute phase of Japanese B encephalitis; two hundred and one cases in American soldiers, Korea, 1950. J Am Med Assoc. 1952 Sep 27;150(4):268–273. doi: 10.1001/jama.1952.03680040010003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Leake C. J., Burke D. S., Nisalak A., Hoke C. H. Isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from clinical specimens using a continuous mosquito cell line. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1986 Sep;35(5):1045–1050. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1986.35.1045. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Liou M. L., Hsu C. Y. Japanese encephalitis virus is transported across the cerebral blood vessels by endocytosis in mouse brain. Cell Tissue Res. 1998 Sep;293(3):389–394. doi: 10.1007/s004410051130. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Liu Z. L., Hennessy S., Strom B. L., Tsai T. F., Wan C. M., Tang S. C., Xiang C. F., Bilker W. B., Pan X. P., Yao Y. J. Short-term safety of live attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine (SA14-14-2): results of a randomized trial with 26,239 subjects. J Infect Dis. 1997 Nov;176(5):1366–1369. doi: 10.1086/517323. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. MIYAKE M. THE PATHOLOGY OF JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS. A REVIEW. Bull World Health Organ. 1964;30:153–160. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Mason P. W., Pincus S., Fournier M. J., Mason T. L., Shope R. E., Paoletti E. Japanese encephalitis virus-vaccinia recombinants produce particulate forms of the structural membrane proteins and induce high levels of protection against lethal JEV infection. Virology. 1991 Jan;180(1):294–305. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(91)90034-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Mathur A., Kumar R., Sharma S., Kulshreshtha R., Kumar A., Chaturvedi U. C. Rapid diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis by immunofluorescent examination of cerebrospinal fluid. Indian J Med Res. 1990 Jan;91:1–4. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. McAda P. C., Mason P. W., Schmaljohn C. S., Dalrymple J. M., Mason T. L., Fournier M. J. Partial nucleotide sequence of the Japanese encephalitis virus genome. Virology. 1987 Jun;158(2):348–360. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(87)90207-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. McGraw C. P., Alexander E., Jr, Howard G. Effect of dose and dose schedule on the response of intracranial pressure to mannitol. Surg Neurol. 1978 Aug;10(2):127–130. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Meiyu F., Huosheng C., Cuihua C., Xiaodong T., Lianhua J., Yifei P., Weijun C., Huiyu G. Detection of flaviviruses by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction with the universal primer set. Microbiol Immunol. 1997;41(3):209–213. doi: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1997.tb01192.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Misra U. K., Kalita J. A comparative study of Japanese and herpes simplex encephalitides. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1998 Jan-Feb;38(1):41–46. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Misra U. K., Kalita J., Jain S. K., Mathur A. Radiological and neurophysiological changes in Japanese encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994 Dec;57(12):1484–1487. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.57.12.1484. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Misra U. K., Kalita J., Srivastava M. Prognosis of Japanese encephalitis: a multivariate analysis. J Neurol Sci. 1998 Dec 11;161(2):143–147. doi: 10.1016/s0022-510x(98)00265-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Mohan Rao C. V., Prasad S. R., Rodrigues J. J., Sharma N. G., Shaikh B. H., Pavri K. M. The first laboratory proven outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in Goa. Indian J Med Res. 1983 Dec;78:745–750. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Muizelaar J. P., Lutz H. A., 3rd, Becker D. P. Effect of mannitol on ICP and CBF and correlation with pressure autoregulation in severely head-injured patients. J Neurosurg. 1984 Oct;61(4):700–706. doi: 10.3171/jns.1984.61.4.0700. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Muizelaar J. P., Marmarou A., Ward J. D., Kontos H. A., Choi S. C., Becker D. P., Gruemer H., Young H. F. Adverse effects of prolonged hyperventilation in patients with severe head injury: a randomized clinical trial. J Neurosurg. 1991 Nov;75(5):731–739. doi: 10.3171/jns.1991.75.5.0731. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Muizelaar J. P., Wei E. P., Kontos H. A., Becker D. P. Mannitol causes compensatory cerebral vasoconstriction and vasodilation in response to blood viscosity changes. J Neurosurg. 1983 Nov;59(5):822–828. doi: 10.3171/jns.1983.59.5.0822. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Nguyen-Thi Kim-Thoa, Lam-Thi Cam-Thu, Ngo-Thi-Vien, Nguyen-Xuan-Quang Isolement d une souche de virus encéphalite Japonaise B a partir du sang d'une petite malade atteinte de collapsus cardio-vasculaire. Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales. 1974 Jul-Aug;67(4):341–346. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Node Y., Nakazawa S. Clinical study of mannitol and glycerol on raised intracranial pressure and on their rebound phenomenon. Adv Neurol. 1990;52:359–363. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Nordström C. H., Messeter K., Sundbärg G., Schalén W., Werner M., Ryding E. Cerebral blood flow, vasoreactivity, and oxygen consumption during barbiturate therapy in severe traumatic brain lesions. J Neurosurg. 1988 Mar;68(3):424–431. doi: 10.3171/jns.1988.68.3.0424. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Ohtaki E., Matsuishi T., Hirano Y., Maekawa K. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after treatment with Japanese B encephalitis vaccine (Nakayama-Yoken and Beijing strains). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995 Sep;59(3):316–317. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.59.3.316. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Oyanagi S., Ikuta F., Ross E. R. Electron microscopic observations in mice infected with Japanese encephalitis. Acta Neuropathol. 1969;13(2):169–191. doi: 10.1007/BF00687029. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Paranjpe S., Banerjee K. Detection of Japanese encephalitis virus by reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction. Acta Virol. 1998 Feb;42(1):5–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Pickard J. D., Czosnyka M. Management of raised intracranial pressure. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993 Aug;56(8):845–858. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.56.8.845. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Pickard J. D., Czosnyka M. Management of raised intracranial pressure. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993 Aug;56(8):845–858. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.56.8.845. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Plesner A. M., Rønne T. Allergic mucocutaneous reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Vaccine. 1997 Aug;15(11):1239–1243. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(97)00020-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Plesner AM, Arlien-Soborg P, Herning M. Neurological complications to vaccination against Japanese encephalitis. Eur J Neurol. 1998 Sep;5(5):479–485. doi: 10.1046/j.1468-1331.1998.550479.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Pollay M., Fullenwider C., Roberts P. A., Stevens F. A. Effect of mannitol and furosemide on blood-brain osmotic gradient and intracranial pressure. J Neurosurg. 1983 Dec;59(6):945–950. doi: 10.3171/jns.1983.59.6.0945. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Raju T. N., Doshi U. V., Vidyasagar D. Cerebral perfusion pressure studies in healthy preterm and term newborn infants. J Pediatr. 1982 Jan;100(1):139–142. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(82)80255-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Rao C. V., Risbud A. R., Rodrigues F. M., Pinto B. D., Joshi G. D. The 1981 epidemic of Japanese encephalitis in Tamil Nadu & Pondicherry. Indian J Med Res. 1988 May;87:417–421. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Ravi V., Premkumar S., Chandramuki A., Kimura-Kuroda J. A reverse passive haemagglutination test for detection of Japanese encephalitis virus antigens in cerebrospinal fluid. J Virol Methods. 1989 Mar;23(3):291–298. doi: 10.1016/0166-0934(89)90161-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Ravi V., Vanajakshi S., Gowda A., Chandramuki A. Laboratory diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis using monoclonal antibodies and correlation of findings with the outcome. J Med Virol. 1989 Nov;29(3):221–223. doi: 10.1002/jmv.1890290313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Reuben R., Gajanana A. Japanese encephalitis in India. Indian J Pediatr. 1997 Mar-Apr;64(2):243–251. doi: 10.1007/BF02752458. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Roberts P. A., Pollay M., Engles C., Pendleton B., Reynolds E., Stevens F. A. Effect on intracranial pressure of furosemide combined with varying doses and administration rates of mannitol. J Neurosurg. 1987 Mar;66(3):440–446. doi: 10.3171/jns.1987.66.3.0440. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Ruff T. A., Eisen D., Fuller A., Kass R. Adverse reactions to Japanese encephalitis vaccine. Lancet. 1991 Oct 5;338(8771):881–882. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(91)91531-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. SHIRAKI H., GOTO A., NARABAYASHI H. ETAT PASS'E ET PR'ESENT DE L'ENC'EPHALITE JAPONAISE AU JAPON. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1963 Jun;108:633–696. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Sato T., Takamura C., Yasuda A., Miyamoto M., Kamogawa K., Yasui K. High-level expression of the Japanese encephalitis virus E protein by recombinant vaccinia virus and enhancement of its extracellular release by the NS3 gene product. Virology. 1993 Feb;192(2):483–490. doi: 10.1006/viro.1993.1064. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Seif S. A., Morita K., Igarashi A. A 27 amino acid coding region of JE virus E protein expressed in E. coli as fusion protein with glutathione-S-transferase elicit neutralizing antibody in mice. Virus Res. 1996 Jul;43(1):91–96. doi: 10.1016/0168-1702(96)01323-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Sen Gupta S. N., Sen M. K., Das P. K., Bhattacharya D. P., Rath B. B. Clinical profile of the epidemic of Japanese encephalitis at Bankura. Indian J Med Res. 1976 Oct;64(10):1393–1402. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Shaywitz B. A., Rothstein P., Venes J. L. Monitoring and management of increased intracranial pressure in Reye syndrome: results in 29 children. Pediatrics. 1980 Aug;66(2):198–204. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Shenkin H. A., Bezier H. S., Bouzarth W. F. Restricted fluid intake. Rational management of the neurosurgical patient. J Neurosurg. 1976 Oct;45(4):432–436. doi: 10.3171/jns.1976.45.4.0432. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Shiraki H., Fujisawa K. [Histopathological study of protracted Japanese encephalitis--report of a case with 151-day duration]. Shinkei Kenkyu No Shimpo. 1969 Jun;13(2):309–317. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Solomon T., Dung N. M., Kneen R., Gainsborough M., Vaughn D. W., Khanh V. T. Japanese encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000 Apr;68(4):405–415. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.68.4.405. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Solomon T., Dung N. M., Kneen R., Gainsborough M., Vaughn D. W., Khanh V. T. Japanese encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000 Apr;68(4):405–415. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.68.4.405. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Solomon T., Kneen R., Dung N. M., Khanh V. C., Thuy T. T., Ha D. Q., Day N. P., Nisalak A., Vaughn D. W., White N. J. Poliomyelitis-like illness due to Japanese encephalitis virus. Lancet. 1998 Apr 11;351(9109):1094–1097. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)07509-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Solomon T., Thao L. T., Dung N. M., Kneen R., Hung N. T., Nisalak A., Vaughn D. W., Farrar J., Hien T. T., White N. J. Rapid diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis by using an immunoglobulin M dot enzyme immunoassay. J Clin Microbiol. 1998 Jul;36(7):2030–2034. doi: 10.1128/jcm.36.7.2030-2034.1998. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Steffen R. Vaccinating against Japanese encephalitis. Lancet. 1987 Aug 29;2(8557):511–511. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(87)91819-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Takegami T., Simamura E., Hirai K., Koyama J. Inhibitory effect of furanonaphthoquinone derivatives on the replication of Japanese encephalitis virus. Antiviral Res. 1998 Jan;37(1):37–45. doi: 10.1016/s0166-3542(97)00058-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Ward J. D., Becker D. P., Miller J. D., Choi S. C., Marmarou A., Wood C., Newlon P. G., Keenan R. Failure of prophylactic barbiturate coma in the treatment of severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1985 Mar;62(3):383–388. doi: 10.3171/jns.1985.62.3.0383. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Westaway E. G., Brinton M. A., Gaidamovich SYa, Horzinek M. C., Igarashi A., Käriäinen L., Lvov D. K., Porterfield J. S., Russell P. K., Trent D. W. Flaviviridae. Intervirology. 1985;24(4):183–192. doi: 10.1159/000149642. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Wilkinson H. A., Rosenfeld S. R. Furosemide and mannitol in the treatment of acute experimental intracranial hypertension. Neurosurgery. 1983 Apr;12(4):405–410. doi: 10.1227/00006123-198304000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Zhang M. J., Wang M. J., Jiang S. Z., Ma W. Y. Passive protection of mice, goats, and monkeys against Japanese encephalitis with monoclonal antibodies. J Med Virol. 1989 Oct;29(2):133–138. doi: 10.1002/jmv.1890290211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Zhang Y. H., Yu W. F., Cai J., Qian D., Zhao T. X., Xu Z. Z., Wan M. X. A rapid method for detection of flavivirus antigens: staphylococcal co-agglutination test using monoclonal antibodies to Japanese encephalitis virus. Acta Virol. 1989 Jan;33(1):24–31. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Zhang Y. H., Yu W. F., Tian Z. W., Ge J. Q., Chen Q. S., Wang Y. M. A simplified new method for the identification of arboviruses: virus detection using enzyme immunoassay on cultured cells. J Virol Methods. 1984 Aug;9(1):45–51. doi: 10.1016/0166-0934(84)90082-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Zimmerman H. M. The Pathology of Japanese B Encephalitis. Am J Pathol. 1946 Sep;22(5):965–991. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Postgraduate Medical Journal are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES