Abstract
Muscle-invasive bladder cancer is a disease which causes significant morbidity and mortality. The two main forms of treatment for this disease include radical cystectomy and radical radiotherapy, but five year survival after treatment remains low at 40%. Many clinical and molecular risk factors have been shown to be associated with poor prognosis. One such factor is the expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which is overexpressed by many epithelial tumours, including bladder cancers. There are several methods of inhibiting the activity of EGFR and it may be that use of an anti-EGFR therapy, in combination with more conventional treatment, provides a method of improving the prognosis for muscle-invasive bladder cancer.
Full Text
The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (249.3 KB).
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Abel P. D., Hall R. R., Williams G. Should pT1 transitional cell cancers of the bladder still be classified as superficial? Br J Urol. 1988 Sep;62(3):235–239. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410x.1988.tb04325.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Althausen A. F., Prout G. R., Jr, Daly J. J. Non-invasive papillary carcinoma of the bladder associated with carcinoma in situ. J Urol. 1976 Nov;116(5):575–580. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)58916-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Baselga J., Pfister D., Cooper M. R., Cohen R., Burtness B., Bos M., D'Andrea G., Seidman A., Norton L., Gunnett K. Phase I studies of anti-epidermal growth factor receptor chimeric antibody C225 alone and in combination with cisplatin. J Clin Oncol. 2000 Feb;18(4):904–914. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2000.18.4.904. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bue P., Wester K., Sjöström A., Holmberg A., Nilsson S., Carlsson J., Westlin J. E., Busch C., Malmström P. U. Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in urinary bladder cancer metastases. Int J Cancer. 1998 Apr 13;76(2):189–193. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(19980413)76:2<189::aid-ijc4>3.0.co;2-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Carpenter G., Cohen S. Epidermal growth factor. J Biol Chem. 1990 May 15;265(14):7709–7712. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chow N. H., Liu H. S., Lee E. I., Chang C. J., Chan S. H., Cheng H. L., Tzai T. S., Lin J. S. Significance of urinary epidermal growth factor and its receptor expression in human bladder cancer. Anticancer Res. 1997 Mar-Apr;17(2B):1293–1296. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ciardiello F., Caputo R., Bianco R., Damiano V., Pomatico G., De Placido S., Bianco A. R., Tortora G. Antitumor effect and potentiation of cytotoxic drugs activity in human cancer cells by ZD-1839 (Iressa), an epidermal growth factor receptor-selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Clin Cancer Res. 2000 May;6(5):2053–2063. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cohen S. The epidermal growth factor (EGF). Cancer. 1983 May 15;51(10):1787–1791. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(19830515)51:10<1787::aid-cncr2820511004>3.0.co;2-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cordon-Cardo C., Wartinger D., Petrylak D., Dalbagni G., Fair W. R., Fuks Z., Reuter V. E. Altered expression of the retinoblastoma gene product: prognostic indicator in bladder cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1992 Aug 19;84(16):1251–1256. doi: 10.1093/jnci/84.16.1251. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dalesio O., Schulman C. C., Sylvester R., De Pauw M., Robinson M., Denis L., Smith P., Viggiano G. Prognostic factors in superficial bladder tumors. A study of the European Organization for Research on Treatment of Cancer: Genitourinary Tract Cancer Cooperative Group. J Urol. 1983 Apr;129(4):730–733. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)52330-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dent P., Reardon D. B., Park J. S., Bowers G., Logsdon C., Valerie K., Schmidt-Ullrich R. Radiation-induced release of transforming growth factor alpha activates the epidermal growth factor receptor and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in carcinoma cells, leading to increased proliferation and protection from radiation-induced cell death. Mol Biol Cell. 1999 Aug;10(8):2493–2506. doi: 10.1091/mbc.10.8.2493. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Duncan W., Quilty P. M. The results of a series of 963 patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder primarily treated by radical megavoltage X-ray therapy. Radiother Oncol. 1986 Dec;7(4):299–310. doi: 10.1016/s0167-8140(86)80059-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fitzpatrick J. M., West A. B., Butler M. R., Lane V., O'Flynn J. D. Superficial bladder tumors (stage pTa, grades 1 and 2): the importance of recurrence pattern following initial resection. J Urol. 1986 May;135(5):920–922. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)45923-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gardiner R. A., Walsh M. D., Allen V., Rahman S., Samaratunga M. L., Seymour G. J., Lavin M. F. Immunohistological expression of p53 in primary pT1 transitional cell bladder cancer in relation to tumour progression. Br J Urol. 1994 May;73(5):526–532. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410x.1994.tb07638.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Goffinet D. R., Schneider M. J., Glatstein E. J., Ludwig H., Ray G. R., Dunnick N. R., Bagshaw M. A. Bladder cancer: results of radiation therapy in 384 patients. Radiology. 1975 Oct;117(1):149–153. doi: 10.1148/117.1.149. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gospodarowicz M. K., Hawkins N. V., Rawlings G. A., Connolly J. G., Jewett M. A., Thomas G. M., Herman J. G., Garrett P. G., Chua T., Duncan W. Radical radiotherapy for muscle invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: failure analysis. J Urol. 1989 Dec;142(6):1448–1454. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)39122-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Greene L. F., Hanash K. A., Farrow G. M. Benign papilloma or papillary carcinoma of the bladder? J Urol. 1973 Aug;110(2):205–207. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)60161-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gullick W. J. Prevalence of aberrant expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor in human cancers. Br Med Bull. 1991 Jan;47(1):87–98. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a072464. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Heney N. M., Nocks B. N., Daly J. J., Prout G. R., Jr, Newall J. B., Griffin P. P., Perrone T. L., Szyfelbein W. A. Ta and T1 bladder cancer: location, recurrence and progression. Br J Urol. 1982 Apr;54(2):152–157. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410x.1982.tb13538.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jakse G., Loidl W., Seeber G., Hofstädter F. Stage T1, grade 3 transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: an unfavorable tumor? J Urol. 1987 Jan;137(1):39–43. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)43864-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jukkola A., Bloigu R., Soini Y., Savolainen E. R., Holli K., Blanco G. c-erbB-2 positivity is a factor for poor prognosis in breast cancer and poor response to hormonal or chemotherapy treatment in advanced disease. Eur J Cancer. 2001 Feb;37(3):347–354. doi: 10.1016/s0959-8049(00)00395-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kavanagh B. D., Lin P. S., Chen P., Schmidt-Ullrich R. K. Radiation-induced enhanced proliferation of human squamous cancer cells in vitro: a release from inhibition by epidermal growth factor. Clin Cancer Res. 1995 Dec;1(12):1557–1562. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kondo I., Shimizu N. Mapping of the human gene for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) on the p13 leads to q22 region of chromosome 7. Cytogenet Cell Genet. 1983;35(1):9–14. doi: 10.1159/000131829. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kurth K. H., Denis L., Bouffioux C., Sylvester R., Debruyne F. M., Pavone-Macaluso M., Oosterlinck W. Factors affecting recurrence and progression in superficial bladder tumours. Eur J Cancer. 1995 Oct;31A(11):1840–1846. doi: 10.1016/0959-8049(95)00287-s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lammering G., Valerie K., Lin P. S., Mikkelsen R. B., Contessa J. N., Feden J. P., Farnsworth J., Dent P., Schmidt-Ullrich R. K. Radiosensitization of malignant glioma cells through overexpression of dominant-negative epidermal growth factor receptor. Clin Cancer Res. 2001 Mar;7(3):682–690. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lee S. E., Chow N. H., Chi Y. C., Tzai T. S., Yang W. H., Lin S. N. Expression of c-erbB-2 protein in normal and neoplastic urothelium: lack of adverse prognostic effect in human urinary bladder cancer. Anticancer Res. 1994 May-Jun;14(3B):1317–1324. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lipponen P. K. Over-expression of p53 nuclear oncoprotein in transitional-cell bladder cancer and its prognostic value. Int J Cancer. 1993 Feb 1;53(3):365–370. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910530304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lipponen P., Eskelinen M. Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in bladder cancer as related to established prognostic factors, oncoprotein (c-erbB-2, p53) expression and long-term prognosis. Br J Cancer. 1994 Jun;69(6):1120–1125. doi: 10.1038/bjc.1994.220. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lowenstein E. J., Daly R. J., Batzer A. G., Li W., Margolis B., Lammers R., Ullrich A., Skolnik E. Y., Bar-Sagi D., Schlessinger J. The SH2 and SH3 domain-containing protein GRB2 links receptor tyrosine kinases to ras signaling. Cell. 1992 Aug 7;70(3):431–442. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90167-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lutzeyer W., Rübben H., Dahm H. Prognostic parameters in superficial bladder cancer: an analysis of 315 cases. J Urol. 1982 Feb;127(2):250–252. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)53725-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mameghan H., Fisher R. Invasive bladder cancer. Prognostic factors and results of radiotherapy with and without cystectomy. Br J Urol. 1989 Mar;63(3):251–258. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410x.1989.tb05185.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mellon J. K., Lunec J., Wright C., Horne C. H., Kelly P., Neal D. E. C-erbB-2 in bladder cancer: molecular biology, correlation with epidermal growth factor receptors and prognostic value. J Urol. 1996 Jan;155(1):321–326. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(01)66653-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mellon K., Wright C., Kelly P., Horne C. H., Neal D. E. Long-term outcome related to epidermal growth factor receptor status in bladder cancer. J Urol. 1995 Mar;153(3 Pt 2):919–925. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Neal D. E., Marsh C., Bennett M. K., Abel P. D., Hall R. R., Sainsbury J. R., Harris A. L. Epidermal-growth-factor receptors in human bladder cancer: comparison of invasive and superficial tumours. Lancet. 1985 Feb 16;1(8425):366–368. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)91386-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Neal D. E., Sharples L., Smith K., Fennelly J., Hall R. R., Harris A. L. The epidermal growth factor receptor and the prognosis of bladder cancer. Cancer. 1990 Apr 1;65(7):1619–1625. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(19900401)65:7<1619::aid-cncr2820650728>3.0.co;2-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nguyen P. L., Swanson P. E., Jaszcz W., Aeppli D. M., Zhang G., Singleton T. P., Ward S., Dykoski D., Harvey J., Niehans G. A. Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder. A multivariate survival analysis. Am J Clin Pathol. 1994 Feb;101(2):166–176. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/101.2.166. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nicholson R. I., Gee J. M., Harper M. E. EGFR and cancer prognosis. Eur J Cancer. 2001 Sep;37 (Suppl 4):S9–15. doi: 10.1016/s0959-8049(01)00231-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nutt J. E., Mellon J. K., Qureshi K., Lunec J. Matrix metalloproteinase-1 is induced by epidermal growth factor in human bladder tumour cell lines and is detectable in urine of patients with bladder tumours. Br J Cancer. 1998 Jul;78(2):215–220. doi: 10.1038/bjc.1998.467. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Parmar M. K., Freedman L. S., Hargreave T. B., Tolley D. A. Prognostic factors for recurrence and followup policies in the treatment of superficial bladder cancer: report from the British Medical Research Council Subgroup on Superficial Bladder Cancer (Urological Cancer Working Party). J Urol. 1989 Aug;142(2 Pt 1):284–288. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)38731-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pearse H. D., Reed R. R., Hodges C. V. Radical cystectomy for bladder cancer. J Urol. 1978 Feb;119(2):216–218. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)57437-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pelicci G., Lanfrancone L., Grignani F., McGlade J., Cavallo F., Forni G., Nicoletti I., Grignani F., Pawson T., Pelicci P. G. A novel transforming protein (SHC) with an SH2 domain is implicated in mitogenic signal transduction. Cell. 1992 Jul 10;70(1):93–104. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90536-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pryor J. P. Factors influencing the survival of patients with transitional cell tumours of the urinary bladder. Br J Urol. 1973 Dec;45(6):586–592. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410x.1973.tb12227.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Quilty P. M., Kerr G. R., Duncan W. Prognostic indices for bladder cancer: an analysis of patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder primarily treated by radical megavoltage X-ray therapy. Radiother Oncol. 1986 Dec;7(4):311–321. doi: 10.1016/s0167-8140(86)80060-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sainsbury J. R., Farndon J. R., Sherbet G. V., Harris A. L. Epidermal-growth-factor receptors and oestrogen receptors in human breast cancer. Lancet. 1985 Feb 16;1(8425):364–366. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(85)91385-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sarkis A. S., Dalbagni G., Cordon-Cardo C., Zhang Z. F., Sheinfeld J., Fair W. R., Herr H. W., Reuter V. E. Nuclear overexpression of p53 protein in transitional cell bladder carcinoma: a marker for disease progression. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993 Jan 6;85(1):53–59. doi: 10.1093/jnci/85.1.53. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schmidt-Ullrich R. K., Mikkelsen R. B., Dent P., Todd D. G., Valerie K., Kavanagh B. D., Contessa J. N., Rorrer W. K., Chen P. B. Radiation-induced proliferation of the human A431 squamous carcinoma cells is dependent on EGFR tyrosine phosphorylation. Oncogene. 1997 Sep 4;15(10):1191–1197. doi: 10.1038/sj.onc.1201275. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schmidt-Ullrich R. K., Valerie K., Fogleman P. B., Walters J. Radiation-induced autophosphorylation of epidermal growth factor receptor in human malignant mammary and squamous epithelial cells. Radiat Res. 1996 Jan;145(1):81–85. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Shipley W. U., Rose M. A., Perrone T. L., Mannix C. M., Heney N. M., Prout G. R., Jr Full-dose irradiation for patients with invasive bladder carcinoma: clinical and histological factors prognostic of improved survival. J Urol. 1985 Oct;134(4):679–683. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)47381-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Skinner D. G., Lieskovsky G. Contemporary cystectomy with pelvic node dissection compared to preoperative radiation therapy plus cystectomy in management of invasive bladder cancer. J Urol. 1984 Jun;131(6):1069–1072. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5347(17)50809-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tut V. M., Hildreth A. J., Kumar M., Mellon J. K. Does voided urine cytology have biological significance? Br J Urol. 1998 Nov;82(5):655–659. doi: 10.1046/j.1464-410x.1998.00843.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ullrich A., Coussens L., Hayflick J. S., Dull T. J., Gray A., Tam A. W., Lee J., Yarden Y., Libermann T. A., Schlessinger J. Human epidermal growth factor receptor cDNA sequence and aberrant expression of the amplified gene in A431 epidermoid carcinoma cells. 1984 May 31-Jun 6Nature. 309(5967):418–425. doi: 10.1038/309418a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Vet J. A., Bringuier P. P., Poddighe P. J., Karthaus H. F., Debruyne F. M., Schalken J. A. p53 mutations have no additional prognostic value over stage in bladder cancer. Br J Cancer. 1994 Sep;70(3):496–500. doi: 10.1038/bjc.1994.334. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wada T., Qian X. L., Greene M. I. Intermolecular association of the p185neu protein and EGF receptor modulates EGF receptor function. Cell. 1990 Jun 29;61(7):1339–1347. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90697-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Williams K. J., Telfer B. A., Stratford I. J., Wedge S. R. ZD1839 ('Iressa'), a specific oral epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor, potentiates radiotherapy in a human colorectal cancer xenograft model. Br J Cancer. 2002 Apr 8;86(7):1157–1161. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600182. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xu H. J., Cairns P., Hu S. X., Knowles M. A., Benedict W. F. Loss of RB protein expression in primary bladder cancer correlates with loss of heterozygosity at the RB locus and tumor progression. Int J Cancer. 1993 Mar 12;53(5):781–784. doi: 10.1002/ijc.2910530513. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]