Skip to main content
Thorax logoLink to Thorax
. 1998 Dec;53(12):1066–1074. doi: 10.1136/thx.53.12.1066

Review of psychosocial stress and asthma: an integrated biopsychosocial approach

R Wright 1, M Rodriguez 1, S Cohen 1
PMCID: PMC1745142  PMID: 10195081

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (125.0 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Ader R., Cohen N., Felten D. Psychoneuroimmunology: interactions between the nervous system and the immune system. Lancet. 1995 Jan 14;345(8942):99–103. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(95)90066-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Adler N. E., Boyce T., Chesney M. A., Cohen S., Folkman S., Kahn R. L., Syme S. L. Socioeconomic status and health. The challenge of the gradient. Am Psychol. 1994 Jan;49(1):15–24. doi: 10.1037//0003-066x.49.1.15. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bachen E. A., Manuck S. B., Cohen S., Muldoon M. F., Raible R., Herbert T. B., Rabin B. S. Adrenergic blockade ameliorates cellular immune responses to mental stress in humans. Psychosom Med. 1995 Jul-Aug;57(4):366–372. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199507000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bailey W. C., Richards J. M., Jr, Brooks C. M., Soong S. J., Windsor R. A., Manzella B. A. A randomized trial to improve self-management practices of adults with asthma. Arch Intern Med. 1990 Aug;150(8):1664–1668. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Barnes P. J. Airway inflammation and autonomic control. Eur J Respir Dis Suppl. 1986;147:80–87. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Barnes P. J., Baraniuk J. N., Belvisi M. G. Neuropeptides in the respiratory tract. Part I. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991 Nov;144(5):1187–1198. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/144.5.1187. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Barnes P. J., Chung K. F., Page C. P. Inflammatory mediators and asthma. Pharmacol Rev. 1988 Mar;40(1):49–84. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Barnes P. J. Neural control of human airways in health and disease. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986 Dec;134(6):1289–1314. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1986.134.5.1289. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Baum A., Cohen L., Hall M. Control and intrusive memories as possible determinants of chronic stress. Psychosom Med. 1993 May-Jun;55(3):274–286. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199305000-00005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Berkman L. F. The role of social relations in health promotion. Psychosom Med. 1995 May-Jun;57(3):245–254. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199505000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Boxer G. H., Carson J., Miller B. D. Neglect contributing to tertiary hospitalization in childhood asthma. Child Abuse Negl. 1988;12(4):491–501. doi: 10.1016/0145-2134(88)90066-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Buske-Kirschbaum A., Jobst S., Wustmans A., Kirschbaum C., Rauh W., Hellhammer D. Attenuated free cortisol response to psychosocial stress in children with atopic dermatitis. Psychosom Med. 1997 Jul-Aug;59(4):419–426. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199707000-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Busse W. W., Gern J. E., Dick E. C. The role of respiratory viruses in asthma. Ciba Found Symp. 1997;206:208–219. doi: 10.1002/9780470515334.ch13. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Busse W. W., Kiecolt-Glaser J. K., Coe C., Martin R. J., Weiss S. T., Parker S. R. NHLBI Workshop summary. Stress and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Jan;151(1):249–252. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.151.1.7812562. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Busse W. W. Respiratory infections: their role in airway responsiveness and the pathogenesis of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1990 Apr;85(4):671–683. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(90)90181-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Charney D. S., Deutch A. Y., Krystal J. H., Southwick S. M., Davis M. Psychobiologic mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993 Apr;50(4):295–305. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820160064008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Christiaanse M. E., Lavigne J. V., Lerner C. V. Psychosocial aspects of compliance in children and adolescents with asthma. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1989 Apr;10(2):75–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Chrousos G. P. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. N Engl J Med. 1995 May 18;332(20):1351–1362. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199505183322008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Clark N. M., Levison M. J., Evans D., Wasilewski Y., Feldman C. H., Mellins R. B. Communication within low income families and the management of asthma. Patient Educ Couns. 1990 Apr;15(2):191–210. doi: 10.1016/0738-3991(90)90062-p. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Cohen S., Doyle W. J., Skoner D. P., Rabin B. S., Gwaltney J. M., Jr Social ties and susceptibility to the common cold. JAMA. 1997 Jun 25;277(24):1940–1944. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Cohen S., Frank E., Doyle W. J., Skoner D. P., Rabin B. S., Gwaltney J. M., Jr Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults. Health Psychol. 1998 May;17(3):214–223. doi: 10.1037//0278-6133.17.3.214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Cohen S., Herbert T. B. Health psychology: psychological factors and physical disease from the perspective of human psychoneuroimmunology. Annu Rev Psychol. 1996;47:113–142. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Cohen S. Psychosocial models of the role of social support in the etiology of physical disease. Health Psychol. 1988;7(3):269–297. doi: 10.1037//0278-6133.7.3.269. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Cohen S., Tyrrell D. A., Smith A. P. Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. N Engl J Med. 1991 Aug 29;325(9):606–612. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199108293250903. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Cohen S., Wills T. A. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychol Bull. 1985 Sep;98(2):310–357. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Davis P. B. Pupillary responses and airway reactivity in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1986 May;77(5):667–673. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(86)90406-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Dimsdale J. E., Moss J. Short-term catecholamine response to psychological stress. Psychosom Med. 1980 Sep;42(5):493–497. doi: 10.1097/00006842-198009000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Dobbin J. P., Harth M., McCain G. A., Martin R. A., Cousin K. Cytokine production and lymphocyte transformation during stress. Brain Behav Immun. 1991 Dec;5(4):339–348. doi: 10.1016/0889-1591(91)90029-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Drazen J. M., Austen K. F. Leukotrienes and airway responses. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987 Oct;136(4):985–998. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/136.4.985. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Drazen J. M., Israel E., Boushey H. A., Chinchilli V. M., Fahy J. V., Fish J. E., Lazarus S. C., Lemanske R. F., Martin R. J., Peters S. P. Comparison of regularly scheduled with as-needed use of albuterol in mild asthma. Asthma Clinical Research Network. N Engl J Med. 1996 Sep 19;335(12):841–847. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199609193351202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Engel G. L. The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. Am J Psychiatry. 1980 May;137(5):535–544. doi: 10.1176/ajp.137.5.535. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Folkerts G., Busse W. W., Nijkamp F. P., Sorkness R., Gern J. E. Virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 Jun;157(6 Pt 1):1708–1720. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.6.9707163. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Fritz G. K., McQuaid E. L., Spirito A., Klein R. B. Symptom perception in pediatric asthma: relationship to functional morbidity and psychological factors. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996 Aug;35(8):1033–1041. doi: 10.1097/00004583-199608000-00014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Fritz G. K., Overholser J. C. Patterns of response to childhood asthma. Psychosom Med. 1989 May-Jun;51(3):347–355. doi: 10.1097/00006842-198905000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Fritz G. K., Yeung A., Wamboldt M. Z., Spirito A., McQuaid E. L., Klein R., Seifer R. Conceptual and methodologic issues in quantifying perceptual accuracy in childhood asthma. J Pediatr Psychol. 1996 Apr;21(2):153–173. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/21.2.153. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Fritze J. The adrenergic-cholinergic imbalance hypothesis of depression: a review and a perspective. Rev Neurosci. 1993 Jan-Mar;4(1):63–93. doi: 10.1515/revneuro.1993.4.1.63. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Glaser R., Kennedy S., Lafuse W. P., Bonneau R. H., Speicher C., Hillhouse J., Kiecolt-Glaser J. K. Psychological stress-induced modulation of interleukin 2 receptor gene expression and interleukin 2 production in peripheral blood leukocytes. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990 Aug;47(8):707–712. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810200015002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Gutstadt L. B., Gillette J. W., Mrazek D. A., Fukuhara J. T., LaBrecque J. F., Strunk R. C. Determinants of school performance in children with chronic asthma. Am J Dis Child. 1989 Apr;143(4):471–475. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.1989.02150160101020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Herbert T. B., Cohen S., Marsland A. L., Bachen E. A., Rabin B. S., Muldoon M. F., Manuck S. B. Cardiovascular reactivity and the course of immune response to an acute psychological stressor. Psychosom Med. 1994 Jul-Aug;56(4):337–344. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199407000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Herbert T. B., Cohen S. Stress and immunity in humans: a meta-analytic review. Psychosom Med. 1993 Jul-Aug;55(4):364–379. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199307000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Holden G. The relationship of self-efficacy appraisals to subsequent health related outcomes: a meta-analysis. Soc Work Health Care. 1991;16(1):53–93. doi: 10.1300/j010v16n01_05. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Holt P. G. Immunoprophylaxis of atopy: light at the end of the tunnel? Immunol Today. 1994 Oct;15(10):484–489. doi: 10.1016/0167-5699(94)90194-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. House J. S., Landis K. R., Umberson D. Social relationships and health. Science. 1988 Jul 29;241(4865):540–545. doi: 10.1126/science.3399889. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Isenberg S. A., Lehrer P. M., Hochron S. The effects of suggestion and emotional arousal on pulmonary function in asthma: a review and a hypothesis regarding vagal mediation. Psychosom Med. 1992 Mar-Apr;54(2):192–216. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199203000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Kaptein A. A. Psychological correlates of length of hospitalization and rehospitalization in patients with acute, severe asthma. Soc Sci Med. 1982;16(6):725–729. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(82)90463-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Katz P. P., Yelin E. H., Smith S., Blanc P. D. Perceived control of asthma: development and validation of a questionnaire. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Feb;155(2):577–582. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.2.9032197. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Kellner R. Psychotherapy in psychosomatic disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1975 Aug;32(8):1021–1028. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760260085007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Kiecolt-Glaser J. K., Cacioppo J. T., Malarkey W. B., Glaser R. Acute psychological stressors and short-term immune changes: what, why, for whom, and to what extent? Psychosom Med. 1992 Nov-Dec;54(6):680–685. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199211000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Kotses H., Hindi-Alexander M., Creer T. L. A reinterpretation of psychologically induced airways changes. J Asthma. 1989;26(1):53–63. doi: 10.3109/02770908909073228. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Krieger N., Rowley D. L., Herman A. A., Avery B., Phillips M. T. Racism, sexism, and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med. 1993 Nov-Dec;9(6 Suppl):82–122. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Laudenslager M. L., Ryan S. M., Drugan R. C., Hyson R. L., Maier S. F. Coping and immunosuppression: inescapable but not escapable shock suppresses lymphocyte proliferation. Science. 1983 Aug 5;221(4610):568–570. doi: 10.1126/science.6603018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Lehrer P. M., Isenberg S., Hochron S. M. Asthma and emotion: a review. J Asthma. 1993;30(1):5–21. doi: 10.3109/02770909309066375. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Lemanske R. F., Jr, Kaliner M. A. Autonomic nervous system abnormalities and asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Mar;141(3 Pt 2):S157–S161. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/141.3_Pt_2.S157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Mann J. J., Brown R. P., Halper J. P., Sweeney J. A., Kocsis J. H., Stokes P. E., Bilezikian J. P. Reduced sensitivity of lymphocyte beta-adrenergic receptors in patients with endogenous depression and psychomotor agitation. N Engl J Med. 1985 Sep 19;313(12):715–720. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198509193131202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Marsland A. L., Manuck S. B., Fazzari T. V., Stewart C. J., Rabin B. S. Stability of individual differences in cellular immune responses to acute psychological stress. Psychosom Med. 1995 May-Jun;57(3):295–298. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199505000-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Martinez F. D. Role of viral infections in the inception of asthma and allergies during childhood: could they be protective? Thorax. 1994 Dec;49(12):1189–1191. doi: 10.1136/thx.49.12.1189. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Mason J. W. A re-evaluation of the concept of "non-specificity" in stress theory. J Psychiatr Res. 1971 Aug;8(3):323–333. doi: 10.1016/0022-3956(71)90028-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. McEwen B. S. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med. 1998 Jan 15;338(3):171–179. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199801153380307. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. McNichol K. N., Williams H. E., Allan J., McAndrew I. Spectrum of asthma in children. 3. Psychological and social components. Br Med J. 1973 Oct 6;4(5883):16–20. doi: 10.1136/bmj.4.5883.16. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Miklich D. R., Rewey H. H., Weiss J. H., Kolton S. A preliminary investigation of psychophysiological responses to stress among different subgroups of asthmatic children. J Psychosom Res. 1973 Jan;17(1):1–8. doi: 10.1016/0022-3999(73)90080-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Miller B. D., Wood B. L. Psychophysiologic reactivity in asthmatic children: a cholinergically mediated confluence of pathways. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994 Nov-Dec;33(9):1236–1245. doi: 10.1097/00004583-199411000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Mitchell H., Senturia Y., Gergen P., Baker D., Joseph C., McNiff-Mortimer K., Wedner H. J., Crain E., Eggleston P., Evans R., 3rd Design and methods of the National Cooperative Inner-City Asthma Study. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1997 Oct;24(4):237–252. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1099-0496(199710)24:4<237::aid-ppul3>3.0.co;2-h. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Moran M. G. Psychological factors affecting pulmonary and rheumatologic diseases. A review. Psychosomatics. 1991 Winter;32(1):14–23. doi: 10.1016/S0033-3182(91)72107-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Ockenfels M. C., Porter L., Smyth J., Kirschbaum C., Hellhammer D. H., Stone A. A. Effect of chronic stress associated with unemployment on salivary cortisol: overall cortisol levels, diurnal rhythm, and acute stress reactivity. Psychosom Med. 1995 Sep-Oct;57(5):460–467. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199509000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Persily C. A. Relationships between the perceived impact of gestational diabetes mellitus and treatment adherence. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 1996 Sep;25(7):601–607. doi: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.1996.tb02119.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Pike J. L., Smith T. L., Hauger R. L., Nicassio P. M., Patterson T. L., McClintick J., Costlow C., Irwin M. R. Chronic life stress alters sympathetic, neuroendocrine, and immune responsivity to an acute psychological stressor in humans. Psychosom Med. 1997 Jul-Aug;59(4):447–457. doi: 10.1097/00006842-199707000-00015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Prescott S. L., Macaubas C., Holt B. J., Smallacombe T. B., Loh R., Sly P. D., Holt P. G. Transplacental priming of the human immune system to environmental allergens: universal skewing of initial T cell responses toward the Th2 cytokine profile. J Immunol. 1998 May 15;160(10):4730–4737. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Rabin B. S., Cohen S., Ganguli R., Lysle D. T., Cunnick J. E. Bidirectional interaction between the central nervous system and the immune system. Crit Rev Immunol. 1989;9(4):279–312. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Romagnani S. Induction of TH1 and TH2 responses: a key role for the 'natural' immune response? Immunol Today. 1992 Oct;13(10):379–381. doi: 10.1016/0167-5699(92)90083-J. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Rosner F. Moses Maimonides' treatise on asthma. Thorax. 1981 Apr;36(4):245–251. doi: 10.1136/thx.36.4.245. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Sears M. R., Rea H. H., Fenwick J., Beaglehole R., Gillies A. J., Holst P. E., O'Donnell T. V., Rothwell R. P., Sutherland D. C. Deaths from asthma in New Zealand. Arch Dis Child. 1986 Jan;61(1):6–10. doi: 10.1136/adc.61.1.6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Shagena M. M., Sandler H. K., Perrin E. C. Concepts of illness and perception of control in healthy children and in children with chronic illnesses. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1988 Oct;9(5):252–256. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Sherman C. B., Tosteson T. D., Tager I. B., Speizer F. E., Weiss S. T. Early childhood predictors of asthma. Am J Epidemiol. 1990 Jul;132(1):83–95. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115646. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Silver E. J., Stein R. E., Dadds M. R. Moderating effects of family structure on the relationship between physical and mental health in urban children with chronic illness. J Pediatr Psychol. 1996 Feb;21(1):43–56. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/21.1.43. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Stein M. J., Wallston K. A., Nicassio P. M., Castner N. M. Correlates of a clinical classification schema for the arthritis helplessness subscale. Arthritis Rheum. 1988 Jul;31(7):876–881. doi: 10.1002/art.1780310708. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Stein R. E., Jessop D. J. Does pediatric home care make a difference for children with chronic illness? Findings from the Pediatric Ambulatory Care Treatment Study. Pediatrics. 1984 Jun;73(6):845–853. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Stokols D. Establishing and maintaining healthy environments. Toward a social ecology of health promotion. Am Psychol. 1992 Jan;47(1):6–22. doi: 10.1037//0003-066x.47.1.6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Stone A. A., Bovbjerg D. H., Neale J. M., Napoli A., Valdimarsdottir H., Cox D., Hayden F. G., Gwaltney J. M., Jr Development of common cold symptoms following experimental rhinovirus infection is related to prior stressful life events. Behav Med. 1992 Fall;18(3):115–120. doi: 10.1080/08964289.1992.9936961. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Strunk R. C., Mrazek D. A., Fuhrmann G. S., LaBrecque J. F. Physiologic and psychological characteristics associated with deaths due to asthma in childhood. A case-controlled study. JAMA. 1985 Sep 6;254(9):1193–1198. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Tal A., Miklich D. R. Emotionally induced decreases in pulmonary flow rates in asthmatic children. Psychosom Med. 1976 May-Jun;38(3):190–200. doi: 10.1097/00006842-197605000-00005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Taylor S. E., Repetti R. L., Seeman T. Health psychology: what is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin? Annu Rev Psychol. 1997;48:411–447. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.411. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Theoharides T. C., Singh L. K., Boucher W., Pang X., Letourneau R., Webster E., Chrousos G. Corticotropin-releasing hormone induces skin mast cell degranulation and increased vascular permeability, a possible explanation for its proinflammatory effects. Endocrinology. 1998 Jan;139(1):403–413. doi: 10.1210/endo.139.1.5660. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Tillotson L. M., Smith M. S. Locus of control, social support, and adherence to the diabetes regimen. Diabetes Educ. 1996 Mar-Apr;22(2):133–139. doi: 10.1177/014572179602200206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Wamboldt F. S., Wamboldt M. Z., Gavin L. A., Roesler T. A., Brugman S. M. Parental criticism and treatment outcome in adolescents hospitalized for severe, chronic asthma. J Psychosom Res. 1995 Nov;39(8):995–1005. doi: 10.1016/0022-3999(95)00507-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Weiss K. B., Gergen P. J., Wagener D. K. Breathing better or wheezing worse? The changing epidemiology of asthma morbidity and mortality. Annu Rev Public Health. 1993;14:491–513. doi: 10.1146/annurev.pu.14.050193.002423. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Weiss S. T., Tager I. B., Muñoz A., Speizer F. E. The relationship of respiratory infections in early childhood to the occurrence of increased levels of bronchial responsiveness and atopy. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1985 Apr;131(4):573–578. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1985.131.4.573. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Williams D. R., Lavizzo-Mourey R., Warren R. C. The concept of race and health status in America. Public Health Rep. 1994 Jan-Feb;109(1):26–41. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Yabuhara A., Macaubas C., Prescott S. L., Venaille T. J., Holt B. J., Habre W., Sly P. D., Holt P. G. TH2-polarized immunological memory to inhalant allergens in atopics is established during infancy and early childhood. Clin Exp Allergy. 1997 Nov;27(11):1261–1269. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Yehuda R., Teicher M. H., Trestman R. L., Levengood R. A., Siever L. J. Cortisol regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: a chronobiological analysis. Biol Psychiatry. 1996 Jul 15;40(2):79–88. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(95)00451-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Thorax are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES