Skip to main content
Thorax logoLink to Thorax
. 1999 Nov;54(11):1041–1046. doi: 10.1136/thx.54.11.1041

Athletes and doping: effects of drugs on the respiratory system

P Dekhuijzen 1, H Machiels 1, L Heunks 1, H F M van der Heijden 1, R H H van Balkom 1
PMCID: PMC1745396  PMID: 10525566

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (81.2 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Bai T. R., Rabinovitch B. J., Pardy R. L. Near-maximal voluntary hyperpnea and ventilatory muscle function. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol. 1984 Dec;57(6):1742–1748. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1984.57.6.1742. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Beiner J. M., Jokl P., Cholewicki J., Panjabi M. M. The effect of anabolic steroids and corticosteroids on healing of muscle contusion injury. Am J Sports Med. 1999 Jan-Feb;27(1):2–9. doi: 10.1177/03635465990270011101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bell D. G., Jacobs I., Zamecnik J. Effects of caffeine, ephedrine and their combination on time to exhaustion during high-intensity exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1998 Apr;77(5):427–433. doi: 10.1007/s004210050355. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bhasin S., Storer T. W., Berman N., Callegari C., Clevenger B., Phillips J., Bunnell T. J., Tricker R., Shirazi A., Casaburi R. The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men. N Engl J Med. 1996 Jul 4;335(1):1–7. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199607043350101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Boutellier U., Büchel R., Kundert A., Spengler C. The respiratory system as an exercise limiting factor in normal trained subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1992;65(4):347–353. doi: 10.1007/BF00868139. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Boutellier U., Piwko P. The respiratory system as an exercise limiting factor in normal sedentary subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1992;64(2):145–152. doi: 10.1007/BF00717952. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bright T. P., Sandage B. W., Jr, Fletcher H. P. Selected cardiac and metabolic responses to pseudoephedrine with exercise. J Clin Pharmacol. 1981 Nov-Dec;21(11-12):488–492. doi: 10.1002/j.1552-4604.1981.tb05655.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bye P. T., Esau S. A., Walley K. R., Macklem P. T., Pardy R. L. Ventilatory muscles during exercise in air and oxygen in normal men. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol. 1984 Feb;56(2):464–471. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1984.56.2.464. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bye P. T., Farkas G. A., Roussos C. Respiratory factors limiting exercise. Annu Rev Physiol. 1983;45:439–451. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ph.45.030183.002255. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Caccia S., Fong M. H. Kinetics and distribution of the beta-adrenergic agonist salbutamol in rat brain. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1984 Mar;36(3):200–202. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1984.tb06941.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Cairns S. P., Hing W. A., Slack J. R., Mills R. G., Loiselle D. S. Different effects of raised [K+]o on membrane potential and contraction in mouse fast- and slow-twitch muscle. Am J Physiol. 1997 Aug;273(2 Pt 1):C598–C611. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.1997.273.2.C598. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Caruso J. F., Signorile J. F., Perry A. C., Leblanc B., Williams R., Clark M., Bamman M. M. The effects of albuterol and isokinetic exercise on the quadriceps muscle group. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995 Nov;27(11):1471–1476. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Casaburi R., Storer T. W., Wasserman K. Mediation of reduced ventilatory response to exercise after endurance training. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1987 Oct;63(4):1533–1538. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1987.63.4.1533. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Chandler J. V., Blair S. N. The effect of amphetamines on selected physiological components related to athletic success. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1980 Spring;12(1):65–69. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Cheetham M. E., Boobis L. H., Brooks S., Williams C. Human muscle metabolism during sprint running. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1986 Jul;61(1):54–60. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1986.61.1.54. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Choo J. J., Horan M. A., Little R. A., Rothwell N. J. Anabolic effects of clenbuterol on skeletal muscle are mediated by beta 2-adrenoceptor activation. Am J Physiol. 1992 Jul;263(1 Pt 1):E50–E56. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1992.263.1.E50. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Clarkson P. M., Thompson H. S. Drugs and sport. Research findings and limitations. Sports Med. 1997 Dec;24(6):366–384. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199724060-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Clarkson P. M., Thompson H. S. Drugs and sport. Research findings and limitations. Sports Med. 1997 Dec;24(6):366–384. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199724060-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Clemons J. M., Crosby S. L. Cardiopulmonary and subjective effects of a 60 mg dose of pseudoephedrine on graded treadmill exercise. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1993 Dec;33(4):405–412. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Crist D. M., Peake G. T., Egan P. A., Waters D. L. Body composition response to exogenous GH during training in highly conditioned adults. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1988 Aug;65(2):579–584. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1988.65.2.579. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Cuthbertson D. P., Knox J. A. The effects of analeptics on the fatigued subject. J Physiol. 1947 Mar 15;106(1):42–58. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. D'Urzo A. D., Jhirad R., Jenne H., Avendano M. A., Rubinstein I., D'Costa M., Goldstein R. S., Rubenstein I. Effect of caffeine on ventilatory responses to hypercapnia, hypoxia, and exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1990 Jan;68(1):322–328. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1990.68.1.322. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Dempsey J. A., Hanson P. G., Henderson K. S. Exercise-induced arterial hypoxaemia in healthy human subjects at sea level. J Physiol. 1984 Oct;355:161–175. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1984.sp015412. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Dempsey J. A. J.B. Wolffe memorial lecture. Is the lung built for exercise? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986 Apr;18(2):143–155. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Deyssig R., Frisch H., Blum W. F., Waldhör T. Effect of growth hormone treatment on hormonal parameters, body composition and strength in athletes. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1993 Apr;128(4):313–318. doi: 10.1530/acta.0.1280313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Emery P. W., Rothwell N. J., Stock M. J., Winter P. D. Chronic effects of beta 2-adrenergic agonists on body composition and protein synthesis in the rat. Biosci Rep. 1984 Jan;4(1):83–91. doi: 10.1007/BF01120827. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Fairbarn M. S., Coutts K. C., Pardy R. L., McKenzie D. C. Improved respiratory muscle endurance of highly trained cyclists and the effects on maximal exercise performance. Int J Sports Med. 1991 Feb;12(1):66–70. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-1024658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Folgering H. Studying the control of breathing in man. Eur Respir J. 1988 Jul;1(7):651–660. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Freed D. L., Banks A. J., Longson D., Burley D. M. Anabolic steroids in athelics: crossover double-blind trial on weightlifters. Br Med J. 1975 May 31;2(5969):471–473. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.5969.471. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Freeman W., Packe G. E., Cayton R. M. Effect of nebulised salbutamol on maximal exercise performance in men with mild asthma. Thorax. 1989 Nov;44(11):942–947. doi: 10.1136/thx.44.11.942. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Gillies H., Derman W. E., Noakes T. D., Smith P., Evans A., Gabriels G. Pseudoephedrine is without ergogenic effects during prolonged exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1996 Dec;81(6):2611–2617. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.6.2611. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Gimenez M., Cereceda V., Teculescu D., Aug F., Laxenaire M. C. Square-wave endurance exercise test (SWEET) for training and assessment in trained and untrained subjects. III. Effect on VO2 max and maximal ventilation. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1982;49(3):379–387. doi: 10.1007/BF00441299. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Green H. J., Ball-Burnett M. E., Morrissey M. A., Spalding M. J., Hughson R. L., Fraser I. G. Fiber type specific glycogen utilization in rat diaphragm during treadmill exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1987 Jul;63(1):75–83. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1987.63.1.75. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Hall I. P., Woodhead M. A., Johnston I. D. Effect of high-dose salbutamol on cardiac rhythm in severe chronic airflow obstruction: a controlled study. Respiration. 1994;61(4):214–218. doi: 10.1159/000196340. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Hanel B., Secher N. H. Maximal oxygen uptake and work capacity after inspiratory muscle training: a controlled study. J Sports Sci. 1991 Spring;9(1):43–52. doi: 10.1080/02640419108729854. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Haupt H. A., Rovere G. D. Anabolic steroids: a review of the literature. Am J Sports Med. 1984 Nov-Dec;12(6):469–484. doi: 10.1177/036354658401200613. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Hervey G. R., Hutchinson I., Knibbs A. V., Burkinshaw L., Jones P. R., Norgan N. G., Levell M. J. "Anabolic" effects of methandienone in men undergoing athletic training. Lancet. 1976 Oct 2;2(7988):699–702. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(76)90001-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Hervey G. R., Knibbs A. V., Burkinshaw L., Morgan D. B., Jones P. R., Chettle D. R., Vartsky D. Effects of methandienone on the performance and body composition of men undergoing athletic training. Clin Sci (Lond) 1981 Apr;60(4):457–461. doi: 10.1042/cs0600457. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Hultman E. Nutritional effects on work performance. Am J Clin Nutr. 1989 May;49(5 Suppl):949–957. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/49.5.949. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Jackman M., Wendling P., Friars D., Graham T. E. Metabolic catecholamine, and endurance responses to caffeine during intense exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1996 Oct;81(4):1658–1663. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.4.1658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Johnson L. C., Roundy E. S., Allsen P. E., Fisher A. G., Silvester L. F. Effect of anabolic steroid treatment on endurance. Med Sci Sports. 1975 Winter;7(4):287–289. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. KARPOVICH P. V. Effect of amphetamine sulfate on athletic performance. J Am Med Assoc. 1959 May 30;170(5):558–561. doi: 10.1001/jama.1959.63010050017008a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Lanigan C., Howes T. Q., Borzone G., Vianna L. G., Moxham J. The effects of beta 2-agonists and caffeine on respiratory and limb muscle performance. Eur Respir J. 1993 Sep;6(8):1192–1196. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Leith D. E., Bradley M. Ventilatory muscle strength and endurance training. J Appl Physiol. 1976 Oct;41(4):508–516. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1976.41.4.508. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Lemmer J. T., Fleck S. J., Wallach J. M., Fox S., Burke E. R., Kearney J. T., Storms W. W. The effects of albuterol on power output in non-asthmatic athletes. Int J Sports Med. 1995 May;16(4):243–249. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-972999. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Lewis M. I., Fournier M., Yeh A. Y., Micevych P. E., Sieck G. C. Alterations in diaphragm contractility after nandrolone administration: an analysis of potential mechanisms. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1999 Mar;86(3):985–992. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1999.86.3.985. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Lindinger M. I., Graham T. E., Spriet L. L. Caffeine attenuates the exercise-induced increase in plasma [K+] in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1993 Mar;74(3):1149–1155. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.74.3.1149. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Loke J., Mahler D. A., Virgulto J. A. Respiratory muscle fatigue after marathon running. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol. 1982 Apr;52(4):821–824. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1982.52.4.821. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Malerba M., Boni E., Tantucci C., Filippi B., Romagnoni G., Grassi V. Ineffectiveness of intravenous beta 2-agonists on improving exercise tolerance in patients with reversible chronic airway obstruction. Respiration. 1996;63(1):8–16. doi: 10.1159/000196509. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Maltin C. A., Delday M. I., Watson J. S., Heys S. D., Nevison I. M., Ritchie I. K., Gibson P. H. Clenbuterol, a beta-adrenoceptor agonist, increases relative muscle strength in orthopaedic patients. Clin Sci (Lond) 1993 Jun;84(6):651–654. doi: 10.1042/cs0840651. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Martin B., Heintzelman M., Chen H. I. Exercise performance after ventilatory work. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol. 1982 Jun;52(6):1581–1585. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1982.52.6.1581. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Martineau L., Horan M. A., Rothwell N. J., Little R. A. Salbutamol, a beta 2-adrenoceptor agonist, increases skeletal muscle strength in young men. Clin Sci (Lond) 1992 Nov;83(5):615–621. doi: 10.1042/cs0830615. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. McDowell S. L., Fleck S. J., Storms W. W. The effects of salmeterol on power output in nonasthmatic athletes. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997 Apr;99(4):443–449. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(97)70068-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Meeuwisse W. H., McKenzie D. C., Hopkins S. R., Road J. D. The effect of salbutamol on performance in elite nonasthmatic athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992 Oct;24(10):1161–1166. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Moore N. G., Pegg G. G., Sillence M. N. Anabolic effects of the beta 2-adrenoceptor agonist salmeterol are dependent on route of administration. Am J Physiol. 1994 Sep;267(3 Pt 1):E475–E484. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1994.267.3.E475. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Morgan D. W., Kohrt W. M., Bates B. J., Skinner J. S. Effects of respiratory muscle endurance training on ventilatory and endurance performance of moderately trained cyclists. Int J Sports Med. 1987 Apr;8(2):88–93. doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1025647. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Morton A. R., Joyce K., Papalia S. M., Carroll N. G., Fitch K. D. Is salmeterol ergogenic? Clin J Sport Med. 1996 Oct;6(4):220–225. doi: 10.1097/00042752-199610000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Norris S. R., Petersen S. R., Jones R. L. The effect of salbutamol on performance in endurance cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1996;73(3-4):364–368. doi: 10.1007/BF02425500. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Pinter E. J., Patee C. J. Fat-mobilizing action of amphetamine. J Clin Invest. 1968 Feb;47(2):394–402. doi: 10.1172/JCI105736. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Prakash Y. S., van der Heijden H. F., Gallant E. M., Sieck G. C. Effect of beta-adrenoceptor activation on [Ca2+]i regulation in murine skeletal myotubes. Am J Physiol. 1999 May;276(5 Pt 1):C1038–C1045. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.1999.276.5.C1038. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Reeds P. J., Hay S. M., Dorward P. M., Palmer R. M. The effect of beta-agonists and antagonists on muscle growth and body composition of young rats (Rattus sp.). Comp Biochem Physiol C. 1988;89(2):337–341. doi: 10.1016/0742-8413(88)90234-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Reeds P. J., Hay S. M., Dorwood P. M., Palmer R. M. Stimulation of muscle growth by clenbuterol: lack of effect on muscle protein biosynthesis. Br J Nutr. 1986 Jul;56(1):249–258. doi: 10.1079/bjn19860104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Rudman D., Feller A. G., Nagraj H. S., Gergans G. A., Lalitha P. Y., Goldberg A. F., Schlenker R. A., Cohn L., Rudman I. W., Mattson D. E. Effects of human growth hormone in men over 60 years old. N Engl J Med. 1990 Jul 5;323(1):1–6. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199007053230101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. SMITH G. M., BEECHER H. K. Amphetamine, secobarbital, and athletic performance. II. Subjective evaluations of performance, mood states, and physical states. J Am Med Assoc. 1960 Apr 2;172:1502–1514. doi: 10.1001/jama.1960.03020140038009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Salomon F., Cuneo R. C., Hesp R., Sönksen P. H. The effects of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone on body composition and metabolism in adults with growth hormone deficiency. N Engl J Med. 1989 Dec 28;321(26):1797–1803. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198912283212605. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Saux M. C., Girault J., Bouquet S., Fourtillan J. B., Courtois P. Etude comparative des distributions tissulaires de deux beta-mimétiques: le clenbutérol et le salbutamol chez le chien. J Pharmacol. 1986 Oct-Dec;17(4):692–698. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Schols A. M., Soeters P. B., Mostert R., Pluymers R. J., Wouters E. F. Physiologic effects of nutritional support and anabolic steroids in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A placebo-controlled randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Oct;152(4 Pt 1):1268–1274. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.152.4.7551381. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Spriet L. L., MacLean D. A., Dyck D. J., Hultman E., Cederblad G., Graham T. E. Caffeine ingestion and muscle metabolism during prolonged exercise in humans. Am J Physiol. 1992 Jun;262(6 Pt 1):E891–E898. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1992.262.6.E891. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Supinski G. S., Levin S., Kelsen S. G. Caffeine effect on respiratory muscle endurance and sense of effort during loaded breathing. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1986 Jun;60(6):2040–2047. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1986.60.6.2040. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Van Der Heijden H. F., Dekhuijzen P. N., Folgering H., Ginsel L. A., Van Herwaarden C. L. Long-term effects of clenbuterol on diaphragm morphology and contractile properties in emphysematous hamsters. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1998 Jul;85(1):215–222. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1998.85.1.215. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Van Der Heijden H. F., Zhan W. Z., Prakash Y. S., Dekhuijzen P. N., Sieck G. C. Salbutamol enhances isotonic contractile properties of rat diaphragm muscle. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1998 Aug;85(2):525–529. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1998.85.2.525. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Van der Heijden H. F., Van Balkom R. H., Folgering H. T., Van Herwaarden C. L., Dekhuijzen P. N. Effects of salbutamol on rat diaphragm contractility. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1996 Sep;81(3):1103–1110. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.3.1103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Violante B., Pellegrino R., Vinay C., Selleri R., Ghinamo G. Failure of aminophylline and salbutamol to improve respiratory muscle function and exercise tolerance in healthy humans. Respiration. 1989;55(4):227–236. doi: 10.1159/000195739. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Wagner J. C. Enhancement of athletic performance with drugs. An overview. Sports Med. 1991 Oct;12(4):250–265. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199112040-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Wemple R. D., Lamb D. R., McKeever K. H. Caffeine vs caffeine-free sports drinks: effects on urine production at rest and during prolonged exercise. Int J Sports Med. 1997 Jan;18(1):40–46. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-972593. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Williams J. H., Powers S. K., Stuart M. K. Hemoglobin desaturation in highly trained athletes during heavy exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986 Apr;18(2):168–173. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Yarasheski K. E., Campbell J. A., Smith K., Rennie M. J., Holloszy J. O., Bier D. M. Effect of growth hormone and resistance exercise on muscle growth in young men. Am J Physiol. 1992 Mar;262(3 Pt 1):E261–E267. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1992.262.3.E261. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Yarasheski K. E. Growth hormone effects on metabolism, body composition, muscle mass, and strength. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1994;22:285–312. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Yarasheski K. E., Zachweija J. J., Angelopoulos T. J., Bier D. M. Short-term growth hormone treatment does not increase muscle protein synthesis in experienced weight lifters. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1993 Jun;74(6):3073–3076. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.74.6.3073. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Yarasheski K. E., Zachwieja J. J., Campbell J. A., Bier D. M. Effect of growth hormone and resistance exercise on muscle growth and strength in older men. Am J Physiol. 1995 Feb;268(2 Pt 1):E268–E276. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1995.268.2.E268. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. di Prampero P. E., Ferretti G. Factors limiting maximal oxygen consumption in humans. Respir Physiol. 1990 May-Jun;80(2-3):113–127. doi: 10.1016/0034-5687(90)90075-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. van der Heijden H. F., Dekhuijzen P. N., Folgering H., van Herwaarden C. L. Inotropic effects of salbutamol on rat diaphragm contractility are potentiated by foreshortening. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Mar;155(3):1072–1079. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.3.9116989. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. van der Heijden H. F., Dekhuijzen P. N., Folgering H., van Herwaarden C. L. Pharmacotherapy of respiratory muscles in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respir Med. 1996 Oct;90(9):513–522. doi: 10.1016/s0954-6111(96)90143-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Thorax are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES