Full Text
The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (184.6 KB).
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Aaron S. D., Angel J. B., Lunau M., Wright K., Fex C., Le Saux N., Dales R. E. Granulocyte inflammatory markers and airway infection during acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Feb;163(2):349–355. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.163.2.2003122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Adams S. G., Melo J., Luther M., Anzueto A. Antibiotics are associated with lower relapse rates in outpatients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest. 2000 May;117(5):1345–1352. doi: 10.1378/chest.117.5.1345. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Adler K. B., Hendley D. D., Davis G. S. Bacteria associated with obstructive pulmonary disease elaborate extracellular products that stimulate mucin secretion by explants of guinea pig airways. Am J Pathol. 1986 Dec;125(3):501–514. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Anderson H. R., Spix C., Medina S., Schouten J. P., Castellsague J., Rossi G., Zmirou D., Touloumi G., Wojtyniak B., Ponka A. Air pollution and daily admissions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 6 European cities: results from the APHEA project. Eur Respir J. 1997 May;10(5):1064–1071. doi: 10.1183/09031936.97.10051064. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Anthonisen N. R., Manfreda J., Warren C. P., Hershfield E. S., Harding G. K., Nelson N. A. Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Intern Med. 1987 Feb;106(2):196–204. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-106-2-196. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Balbi B., Bason C., Balleari E., Fiasella F., Pesci A., Ghio R., Fabiano F. Increased bronchoalveolar granulocytes and granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor during exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Eur Respir J. 1997 Apr;10(4):846–850. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Barberà J. A., Roca J., Ferrer A., Félez M. A., Díaz O., Roger N., Rodriguez-Roisin R. Mechanisms of worsening gas exchange during acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1997 Jun;10(6):1285–1291. doi: 10.1183/09031936.97.10061285. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Beaty C. D., Grayston J. T., Wang S. P., Kuo C. C., Reto C. S., Martin T. R. Chlamydia pneumoniae, strain TWAR, infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991 Dec;144(6):1408–1410. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/144.6.1408. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bhowmik A., Seemungal T. A., Sapsford R. J., Wedzicha J. A. Relation of sputum inflammatory markers to symptoms and lung function changes in COPD exacerbations. Thorax. 2000 Feb;55(2):114–120. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.2.114. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bone R. C. The sepsis syndrome. Definition and general approach to management. Clin Chest Med. 1996 Jun;17(2):175–181. doi: 10.1016/s0272-5231(05)70307-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bresser P., Out T. A., van Alphen L., Jansen H. M., Lutter R. Airway inflammation in nonobstructive and obstructive chronic bronchitis with chronic haemophilus influenzae airway infection. Comparison with noninfected patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 Sep;162(3 Pt 1):947–952. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.162.3.9908103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Burge P. S., Calverley P. M., Jones P. W., Spencer S., Anderson J. A., Maslen T. K. Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled study of fluticasone propionate in patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: the ISOLDE trial. BMJ. 2000 May 13;320(7245):1297–1303. doi: 10.1136/bmj.320.7245.1297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Burrows B., Bloom J. W., Traver G. A., Cline M. G. The course and prognosis of different forms of chronic airways obstruction in a sample from the general population. N Engl J Med. 1987 Nov 19;317(21):1309–1314. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198711193172103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Buscho R. O., Saxtan D., Shultz P. S., Finch E., Mufson M. A. Infections with viruses and Mycoplasma pneumoniae during exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J Infect Dis. 1978 Apr;137(4):377–383. doi: 10.1093/infdis/137.4.377. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- CARILLI A. D., GOHD R. S., GORDON W. A VIROLOGIC STUDY OF CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. N Engl J Med. 1964 Jan 16;270:123–127. doi: 10.1056/NEJM196401162700303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cabello H., Torres A., Celis R., El-Ebiary M., Puig de la Bellacasa J., Xaubet A., González J., Agustí C., Soler N. Bacterial colonization of distal airways in healthy subjects and chronic lung disease: a bronchoscopic study. Eur Respir J. 1997 May;10(5):1137–1144. doi: 10.1183/09031936.97.10051137. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chalmers G. W., Macleod K. J., Sriram S., Thomson L. J., McSharry C., Stack B. H., Thomson N. C. Sputum endothelin-1 is increased in cystic fibrosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1999 Jun;13(6):1288–1292. doi: 10.1183/09031936.99.13612939. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chanez P., Vignola A. M., O'Shaugnessy T., Enander I., Li D., Jeffery P. K., Bousquet J. Corticosteroid reversibility in COPD is related to features of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 May;155(5):1529–1534. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154853. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chapman A. J., Jr, Musher D. M., Jonsson S., Clarridge J. E., Wallace R. J., Jr Development of bactericidal antibody during Branhamella catarrhalis infection. J Infect Dis. 1985 May;151(5):878–882. doi: 10.1093/infdis/151.5.878. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Crooks S. W., Bayley D. L., Hill S. L., Stockley R. A. Bronchial inflammation in acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: the role of leukotriene B4. Eur Respir J. 2000 Feb;15(2):274–280. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.15b09.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dahl M., Tybjaerg-Hansen A., Vestbo J., Lange P., Nordestgaard B. G. Elevated plasma fibrinogen associated with reduced pulmonary function and increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Sep 15;164(6):1008–1011. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.164.6.2010067. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Davies L., Angus R. M., Calverley P. M. Oral corticosteroids in patients admitted to hospital with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a prospective randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1999 Aug 7;354(9177):456–460. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(98)11326-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Davies L., Hadcroft J., Mutton K., Earis J. E., Kennedy N. Antimicrobial management of acute exacerbation of chronic airflow limitation. QJM. 2001 Jul;94(7):373–378. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/94.7.373. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Devalia J. L., Rusznak C., Herdman M. J., Trigg C. J., Tarraf H., Davies R. J. Effect of nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide on airway response of mild asthmatic patients to allergen inhalation. Lancet. 1994 Dec 17;344(8938):1668–1671. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90458-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Di Stefano A., Capelli A., Lusuardi M., Balbo P., Vecchio C., Maestrelli P., Mapp C. E., Fabbri L. M., Donner C. F., Saetta M. Severity of airflow limitation is associated with severity of airway inflammation in smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 Oct;158(4):1277–1285. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.158.4.9802078. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Eller J., Ede A., Schaberg T., Niederman M. S., Mauch H., Lode H. Infective exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: relation between bacteriologic etiology and lung function. Chest. 1998 Jun;113(6):1542–1548. doi: 10.1378/chest.113.6.1542. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fagon J. Y., Chastre J., Trouillet J. L., Domart Y., Dombret M. C., Bornet M., Gibert C. Characterization of distal bronchial microflora during acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Use of the protected specimen brush technique in 54 mechanically ventilated patients. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Nov;142(5):1004–1008. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/142.5.1004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fernandez A., Lazaro A., Garcia A., Aragon C., Cerda E. Bronchodilators in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on mechanical ventilation. Utilization of metered-dose inhalers. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Jan;141(1):164–168. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/141.1.164. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fiorini G., Crespi S., Rinaldi M., Oberti E., Vigorelli R., Palmieri G. Serum ECP and MPO are increased during exacerbations of chronic bronchitis with airway obstruction. Biomed Pharmacother. 2000 Jun;54(5):274–278. doi: 10.1016/S0753-3322(00)80071-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fisher M., Akhtar A. J., Calder M. A., Moffat M. A., Stewart S. M., Zealley H., Crofton J. W. Pilot study of factors associated with exacerbations in chronic bronchitis. Br Med J. 1969 Oct 25;4(5677):187–192. doi: 10.1136/bmj.4.5677.187. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fletcher C., Peto R. The natural history of chronic airflow obstruction. Br Med J. 1977 Jun 25;1(6077):1645–1648. doi: 10.1136/bmj.1.6077.1645. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fujimoto K., Kubo K., Yamamoto H., Yamaguchi S., Matsuzawa Y. Eosinophilic inflammation in the airway is related to glucocorticoid reversibility in patients with pulmonary emphysema. Chest. 1999 Mar;115(3):697–702. doi: 10.1378/chest.115.3.697. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Garcia-Aymerich J., Monsó E., Marrades R. M., Escarrabill J., Félez M. A., Sunyer J., Antó J. M., EFRAM Investigators Risk factors for hospitalization for a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation. EFRAM study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Sep 15;164(6):1002–1007. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.164.6.2006012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Garcia-Aymerich J., Tobías A., Antó J. M., Sunyer J. Air pollution and mortality in a cohort of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a time series analysis. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2000 Jan;54(1):73–74. doi: 10.1136/jech.54.1.73. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gompertz S., Bayley D. L., Hill S. L., Stockley R. A. Relationship between airway inflammation and the frequency of exacerbations in patients with smoking related COPD. Thorax. 2001 Jan;56(1):36–41. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.1.36. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gompertz S., O'Brien C., Bayley D. L., Hill S. L., Stockley R. A. Changes in bronchial inflammation during acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Eur Respir J. 2001 Jun;17(6):1112–1119. doi: 10.1183/09031936.01.99114901. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gompertz S., Stockley R. A. Inflammation--role of the neutrophil and the eosinophil. Semin Respir Infect. 2000 Mar;15(1):14–23. doi: 10.1053/srin.2000.0150014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Greenberg S. B., Allen M., Wilson J., Atmar R. L. Respiratory viral infections in adults with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 Jul;162(1):167–173. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.162.1.9911019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gump D. W., Phillips C. A., Forsyth B. R., McIntosh K., Lamborn K. R., Stouch W. H. Role of infection in chronic bronchitis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1976 Apr;113(4):465–474. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1976.113.4.465. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hegele R. G., Hayashi S., Hogg J. C., Paré P. D. Mechanisms of airway narrowing and hyperresponsiveness in viral respiratory tract infections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 May;151(5):1659–1665. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.151.5.7735630. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hill A. T., Bayley D. L., Campbell E. J., Hill S. L., Stockley R. A. Airways inflammation in chronic bronchitis: the effects of smoking and alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Eur Respir J. 2000 May;15(5):886–890. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.15e12.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hill A. T., Campbell E. J., Bayley D. L., Hill S. L., Stockley R. A. Evidence for excessive bronchial inflammation during an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in patients with alpha(1)-antitrypsin deficiency (PiZ). Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Dec;160(6):1968–1975. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.6.9904097. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hill A. T., Campbell E. J., Hill S. L., Bayley D. L., Stockley R. A. Association between airway bacterial load and markers of airway inflammation in patients with stable chronic bronchitis. Am J Med. 2000 Sep;109(4):288–295. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343(00)00507-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hirschmann J. V. Do bacteria cause exacerbations of COPD? Chest. 2000 Jul;118(1):193–203. doi: 10.1378/chest.118.1.193. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jacoby D. B., Fryer A. D. Interaction of viral infections with muscarinic receptors. Clin Exp Allergy. 1999 Jun;29 (Suppl 2):59–64. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1999.00010.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kanner R. E., Anthonisen N. R., Connett J. E., Lung Health Study Research Group Lower respiratory illnesses promote FEV(1) decline in current smokers but not ex-smokers with mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: results from the lung health study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Aug 1;164(3):358–364. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.164.3.2010017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kanner R. E., Renzetti A. D., Jr, Klauber M. R., Smith C. B., Golden C. A. Variables associated with changes in spirometry in patients with obstructive lung diseases. Am J Med. 1979 Jul;67(1):44–50. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(79)90072-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Karnak D., Beng-sun S., Beder S., Kayacan O. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Respir Med. 2001 Oct;95(10):811–816. doi: 10.1053/rmed.2001.1159. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Keatings V. M., Collins P. D., Scott D. M., Barnes P. J. Differences in interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in induced sputum from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Feb;153(2):530–534. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.153.2.8564092. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Khair O. A., Devalia J. L., Abdelaziz M. M., Sapsford R. J., Tarraf H., Davies R. J. Effect of Haemophilus influenzae endotoxin on the synthesis of IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha and expression of ICAM-1 in cultured human bronchial epithelial cells. Eur Respir J. 1994 Dec;7(12):2109–2116. doi: 10.1183/09031936.94.07122109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kopp M. V., Ulmer C., Ihorst G., Seydewitz H. H., Frischer T., Forster J., Kuehr J. Upper airway inflammation in children exposed to ambient ozone and potential signs of adaptation. Eur Respir J. 1999 Oct;14(4):854–861. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.1999.14d22.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kubiet M., Ramphal R. Adhesion of nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae from blood and sputum to human tracheobronchial mucins and lactoferrin. Infect Immun. 1995 Mar;63(3):899–902. doi: 10.1128/iai.63.3.899-902.1995. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lacoste J. Y., Bousquet J., Chanez P., Van Vyve T., Simony-Lafontaine J., Lequeu N., Vic P., Enander I., Godard P., Michel F. B. Eosinophilic and neutrophilic inflammation in asthma, chronic bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1993 Oct;92(4):537–548. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(93)90078-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lamy M. E., Pouthier-Simon F., Debacker-Willame E. Respiratory viral infections in hospital patients with chronic bronchitis. Observations during periods of exacerbation and quiescence. Chest. 1973 Mar;63(3):336–341. doi: 10.1378/chest.63.3.336. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lieberman D., Lieberman D., Ben-Yaakov M., Lazarovich Z., Hoffman S., Ohana B., Friedman M. G., Dvoskin B., Leinonen M., Boldur I. Infectious etiologies in acute exacerbation of COPD. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001 Jul;40(3):95–102. doi: 10.1016/s0732-8893(01)00255-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lloberes P., Ramis L., Montserrat J. M., Serra J., Campistol J., Picado C., Agusti-Vidal A. Effect of three different bronchodilators during an exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1988 Jun;1(6):536–539. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- MAY J. R. The bacteriology of chronic bronchitis. Lancet. 1953 Sep 12;265(6785):534–537. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(53)90274-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Marchioni C. F., Polu J. M., Taytard A., Hanard T., Noseda G., Mancini C. Evaluation of efficacy and safety of erdosteine in patients affected by chronic bronchitis during an infective exacerbation phase and receiving amoxycillin as basic treatment (ECOBES, European Chronic Obstructive Bronchitis Erdosteine Study). Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1995 Nov;33(11):612–618. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Melbye H., Kongerud J., Vorland L. Reversible airflow limitation in adults with respiratory infection. Eur Respir J. 1994 Jul;7(7):1239–1245. doi: 10.1183/09031936.94.07071239. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Miravitlles M., Espinosa C., Fernández-Laso E., Martos J. A., Maldonado J. A., Gallego M. Relationship between bacterial flora in sputum and functional impairment in patients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Study Group of Bacterial Infection in COPD. Chest. 1999 Jul;116(1):40–46. doi: 10.1378/chest.116.1.40. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mitchell J. L., Hill S. L. Immune response to Haemophilus parainfluenzae in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2000 Jan;7(1):25–30. doi: 10.1128/cdli.7.1.25-30.2000. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Moayyedi P., Congleton J., Page R. L., Pearson S. B., Muers M. F. Comparison of nebulised salbutamol and ipratropium bromide with salbutamol alone in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 1995 Aug;50(8):834–837. doi: 10.1136/thx.50.8.834. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mogulkoc N., Karakurt S., Isalska B., Bayindir U., Celikel T., Korten V., Colpan N. Acute purulent exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Jul;160(1):349–353. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.1.9809041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Monsó E., Rosell A., Bonet G., Manterola J., Cardona P. J., Ruiz J., Morera J. Risk factors for lower airway bacterial colonization in chronic bronchitis. Eur Respir J. 1999 Feb;13(2):338–342. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.1999.13b20.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Monsó E., Ruiz J., Rosell A., Manterola J., Fiz J., Morera J., Ausina V. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A study of stable and exacerbated outpatients using the protected specimen brush. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Oct;152(4 Pt 1):1316–1320. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.152.4.7551388. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Monto A. S., Bryan E. R. Susceptibility to rhinovirus infection in chronic bronchitis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1978 Dec;118(6):1101–1103. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1978.118.6.1101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mossberg B., Afzelius B., Camner P. Mucociliary clearance in obstructive lung diseases. Correlations to the immotile cilia syndrome. Eur J Respir Dis Suppl. 1986;146:295–301. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Murphy T. F., Sethi S., Klingman K. L., Brueggemann A. B., Doern G. V. Simultaneous respiratory tract colonization by multiple strains of nontypeable haemophilus influenzae in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: implications for antibiotic therapy. J Infect Dis. 1999 Aug;180(2):404–409. doi: 10.1086/314870. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nicotra M. B., Rivera M., Awe R. J. Antibiotic therapy of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. A controlled study using tetracycline. Ann Intern Med. 1982 Jul;97(1):18–21. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-97-1-18. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Noguera A., Batle S., Miralles C., Iglesias J., Busquets X., MacNee W., Agustí A. G. Enhanced neutrophil response in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2001 Jun;56(6):432–437. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.6.432. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nordenhäll C., Pourazar J., Blomberg A., Levin J. O., Sandström T., Adelroth E. Airway inflammation following exposure to diesel exhaust: a study of time kinetics using induced sputum. Eur Respir J. 2000 Jun;15(6):1046–1051. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.01512.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- O'Brien C., Guest P. J., Hill S. L., Stockley R. A. Physiological and radiological characterisation of patients diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in primary care. Thorax. 2000 Aug;55(8):635–642. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.8.635. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- O'Connell J. M., Baird L. I., Campbell A. H. Sputum eosinophilia in chronic bronchitis and asthma. Respiration. 1978;35(2):65–72. doi: 10.1159/000193861. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- O'Shaughnessy T. C., Ansari T. W., Barnes N. C., Jeffery P. K. Inflammation in bronchial biopsies of subjects with chronic bronchitis: inverse relationship of CD8+ T lymphocytes with FEV1. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Mar;155(3):852–857. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.3.9117016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ohtoshi T., Takizawa H., Okazaki H., Kawasaki S., Takeuchi N., Ohta K., Ito K. Diesel exhaust particles stimulate human airway epithelial cells to produce cytokines relevant to airway inflammation in vitro. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1998 Jun;101(6 Pt 1):778–785. doi: 10.1016/S0091-6749(98)70307-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Patrick D. M., Dales R. E., Stark R. M., Laliberte G., Dickinson G. Severe exacerbations of COPD and asthma. Incremental benefit of adding ipratropium to usual therapy. Chest. 1990 Aug;98(2):295–297. doi: 10.1378/chest.98.2.295. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pauwels R. A., Buist A. S., Calverley P. M., Jenkins C. R., Hurd S. S., GOLD Scientific Committee Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. NHLBI/WHO Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) Workshop summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Apr;163(5):1256–1276. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.163.5.2101039. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pesci A., Balbi B., Majori M., Cacciani G., Bertacco S., Alciato P., Donner C. F. Inflammatory cells and mediators in bronchial lavage of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1998 Aug;12(2):380–386. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.12020380. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Poole P. J., Black P. N. Oral mucolytic drugs for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: systematic review. BMJ. 2001 May 26;322(7297):1271–1274. doi: 10.1136/bmj.322.7297.1271. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Poole P. J., Chacko E., Wood-Baker R. W., Cates C. J. Influenza vaccine for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(4):CD002733–CD002733. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD002733. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Prescott E., Lange P., Vestbo J. Chronic mucus hypersecretion in COPD and death from pulmonary infection. Eur Respir J. 1995 Aug;8(8):1333–1338. doi: 10.1183/09031936.95.08081333. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Read R. C., Wilson R., Rutman A., Lund V., Todd H. C., Brain A. P., Jeffery P. K., Cole P. J. Interaction of nontypable Haemophilus influenzae with human respiratory mucosa in vitro. J Infect Dis. 1991 Mar;163(3):549–558. doi: 10.1093/infdis/163.3.549. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rodriguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary gas exchange in acute respiratory failure. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1994 Jan;11(1):5–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rodriguez-Roisin R. Toward a consensus definition for COPD exacerbations. Chest. 2000 May;117(5 Suppl 2):398S–401S. doi: 10.1378/chest.117.5_suppl_2.398s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Roland M., Bhowmik A., Sapsford R. J., Seemungal T. A., Jeffries D. J., Warner T. D., Wedzicha J. A. Sputum and plasma endothelin-1 levels in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2001 Jan;56(1):30–35. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.1.30. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rudell B., Blomberg A., Helleday R., Ledin M. C., Lundbäck B., Stjernberg N., Hörstedt P., Sandström T. Bronchoalveolar inflammation after exposure to diesel exhaust: comparison between unfiltered and particle trap filtered exhaust. Occup Environ Med. 1999 Aug;56(8):527–534. doi: 10.1136/oem.56.8.527. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sachs A. P., Koëter G. H., Groenier K. H., van der Waaij D., Schiphuis J., Meyboom-de Jong B. Changes in symptoms, peak expiratory flow, and sputum flora during treatment with antibiotics of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in general practice. Thorax. 1995 Jul;50(7):758–763. doi: 10.1136/thx.50.7.758. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Saetta M., Di Stefano A., Maestrelli P., Turato G., Mapp C. E., Pieno M., Zanguochi G., Del Prete G., Fabbri L. M. Airway eosinophilia and expression of interleukin-5 protein in asthma and in exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin Exp Allergy. 1996 Jul;26(7):766–774. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Saetta M., Di Stefano A., Maestrelli P., Turato G., Ruggieri M. P., Roggeri A., Calcagni P., Mapp C. E., Ciaccia A., Fabbri L. M. Airway eosinophilia in chronic bronchitis during exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Dec;150(6 Pt 1):1646–1652. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.150.6.7952628. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Saetta M., Di Stefano A., Turato G., Facchini F. M., Corbino L., Mapp C. E., Maestrelli P., Ciaccia A., Fabbri L. M. CD8+ T-lymphocytes in peripheral airways of smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 Mar;157(3 Pt 1):822–826. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.3.9709027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Saint S., Bent S., Vittinghoff E., Grady D. Antibiotics in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. A meta-analysis. JAMA. 1995 Mar 22;273(12):957–960. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schwartz J. Air pollution and hospital admissions for the elderly in Detroit, Michigan. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Sep;150(3):648–655. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.150.3.8087333. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schwartz J. PM10, ozone, and hospital admissions for the elderly in Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota. Arch Environ Health. 1994 Sep-Oct;49(5):366–374. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1994.9954989. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Scott K. W. Bacteriology of the sputum in exacerbation and remission of chronic bronchitis. Br J Dis Chest. 1973 Jan;67(1):43–48. doi: 10.1016/0007-0971(73)90006-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Seemungal T. A., Donaldson G. C., Bhowmik A., Jeffries D. J., Wedzicha J. A. Time course and recovery of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 May;161(5):1608–1613. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.161.5.9908022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Seemungal T. A., Donaldson G. C., Paul E. A., Bestall J. C., Jeffries D. J., Wedzicha J. A. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1418–1422. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.5.9709032. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Seemungal T. A., Harper-Owen R., Bhowmik A., Jeffries D. J., Wedzicha J. A. Detection of rhinovirus in induced sputum at exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 2000 Oct;16(4):677–683. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.16d19.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sethi S., Muscarella K., Evans N., Klingman K. L., Grant B. J., Murphy T. F. Airway inflammation and etiology of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest. 2000 Dec;118(6):1557–1565. doi: 10.1378/chest.118.6.1557. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smallman L. A., Hill S. L., Stockley R. A. Reduction of ciliary beat frequency in vitro by sputum from patients with bronchiectasis: a serine proteinase effect. Thorax. 1984 Sep;39(9):663–667. doi: 10.1136/thx.39.9.663. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smith C. B., Golden C. A., Kanner R. E., Renzetti A. D., Jr Association of viral and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections with acute respiratory illness in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980 Feb;121(2):225–232. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1980.121.2.225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smith C. B., Golden C., Klauber M. R., Kanner R., Renzetti A. Interactions between viruses and bacteria in patients with chronic bronchitis. J Infect Dis. 1976 Dec;134(6):552–561. doi: 10.1093/infdis/134.6.552. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smith C. B., Kanner R. E., Golden C. A., Klauber M. R., Renzetti A. D., Jr Effect of viral infections on pulmonary function in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. J Infect Dis. 1980 Mar;141(3):271–280. doi: 10.1093/infdis/141.3.271. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smith J. A., Redman P., Woodhead M. A. Antibiotic use in patients admitted with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1999 Apr;13(4):835–838. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.1999.13d23.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Soler N., Ewig S., Torres A., Filella X., Gonzalez J., Zaubet A. Airway inflammation and bronchial microbial patterns in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1999 Nov;14(5):1015–1022. doi: 10.1183/09031936.99.14510159. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Soler N., Torres A., Ewig S., Gonzalez J., Celis R., El-Ebiary M., Hernandez C., Rodriguez-Roisin R. Bronchial microbial patterns in severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) requiring mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1498–1505. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.5.9711044. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stenhouse A. C. Viral antibody levels and clinical status in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: a controlled prospective study. Br Med J. 1968 Aug 3;3(5613):287–290. doi: 10.1136/bmj.3.5613.287. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stockley R. A., Bayley D., Hill S. L., Hill A. T., Crooks S., Campbell E. J. Assessment of airway neutrophils by sputum colour: correlation with airways inflammation. Thorax. 2001 May;56(5):366–372. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.5.366. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stockley R. A., O'Brien C., Pye A., Hill S. L. Relationship of sputum color to nature and outpatient management of acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest. 2000 Jun;117(6):1638–1645. doi: 10.1378/chest.117.6.1638. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stănescu D., Sanna A., Veriter C., Kostianev S., Calcagni P. G., Fabbri L. M., Maestrelli P. Airways obstruction, chronic expectoration, and rapid decline of FEV1 in smokers are associated with increased levels of sputum neutrophils. Thorax. 1996 Mar;51(3):267–271. doi: 10.1136/thx.51.3.267. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sunyer J., Schwartz J., Tobías A., Macfarlane D., Garcia J., Antó J. M. Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are at increased risk of death associated with urban particle air pollution: a case-crossover analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2000 Jan 1;151(1):50–56. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a010121. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sunyer J., Sáez M., Murillo C., Castellsague J., Martínez F., Antó J. M. Air pollution and emergency room admissions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a 5-year study. Am J Epidemiol. 1993 Apr 1;137(7):701–705. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116730. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Taylor D. C., Cripps A. W., Clancy R. L. A possible role for lysozyme in determining acute exacerbation in chronic bronchitis. Clin Exp Immunol. 1995 Nov;102(2):406–416. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1995.tb03798.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Thompson A. B., Daughton D., Robbins R. A., Ghafouri M. A., Oehlerking M., Rennard S. I. Intraluminal airway inflammation in chronic bronchitis. Characterization and correlation with clinical parameters. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 Dec;140(6):1527–1537. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/140.6.1527. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Thompson W. H., Nielson C. P., Carvalho P., Charan N. B., Crowley J. J. Controlled trial of oral prednisone in outpatients with acute COPD exacerbation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Aug;154(2 Pt 1):407–412. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.154.2.8756814. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tomee J. F., Koëter G. H., Hiemstra P. S., Kauffman H. F. Secretory leukoprotease inhibitor: a native antimicrobial protein presenting a new therapeutic option? Thorax. 1998 Feb;53(2):114–116. doi: 10.1136/thx.53.2.114. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Verkooyen R. P., Van Lent N. A., Mousavi Joulandan S. A., Snijder R. J., van den Bosch J. M., Van Helden H. P., Verbrugh H. A. Diagnosis of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by micro-immunofluorescence and ELISA. J Med Microbiol. 1997 Nov;46(11):959–964. doi: 10.1099/00222615-46-11-959. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wedzicha J. A., Seemungal T. A., MacCallum P. K., Paul E. A., Donaldson G. C., Bhowmik A., Jeffries D. J., Meade T. W. Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are accompanied by elevations of plasma fibrinogen and serum IL-6 levels. Thromb Haemost. 2000 Aug;84(2):210–215. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wedzicha J. A. The heterogeneity of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2000 Aug;55(8):631–632. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.8.631. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wilson R., Roberts D., Cole P. Effect of bacterial products on human ciliary function in vitro. Thorax. 1985 Feb;40(2):125–131. doi: 10.1136/thx.40.2.125. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wilson R., Roberts D., Cole P. Effect of bacterial products on human ciliary function in vitro. Thorax. 1985 Feb;40(2):125–131. doi: 10.1136/thx.40.2.125. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Woolhouse I. S., Hill S. L., Stockley R. A. Symptom resolution assessed using a patient directed diary card during treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Thorax. 2001 Dec;56(12):947–953. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.12.947. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yi K., Sethi S., Murphy T. F. Human immune response to nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae in chronic bronchitis. J Infect Dis. 1997 Nov;176(5):1247–1252. doi: 10.1086/514119. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhu J., Qiu Y. S., Majumdar S., Gamble E., Matin D., Turato G., Fabbri L. M., Barnes N., Saetta M., Jeffery P. K. Exacerbations of Bronchitis: bronchial eosinophilia and gene expression for interleukin-4, interleukin-5, and eosinophil chemoattractants. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Jul 1;164(1):109–116. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.164.1.2007050. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]