Skip to main content
PMC home page
Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases logoLink to Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases
. 1999 Aug;58(8):465–474. doi: 10.1136/ard.58.8.465

Treatment of oral dryness related complaints (xerostomia) in Sjögren's syndrome

W A van der Reijden 1, A Vissink 1, E Veerman 1, A Amerongen 1
PMCID: PMC1752926  PMID: 10419864

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (92.4 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. 'S-Gravenmade E. J., Roukema P. A., Panders A. K. The effect of mucin-containing artificial saliva on severe xerostomia. Int J Oral Surg. 1974;3(6):435–439. doi: 10.1016/s0300-9785(74)80009-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Aagaard A., Godiksen S., Teglers P. T., Schiødt M., Glenert U. Comparison between new saliva stimulants in patients with dry mouth: a placebo-controlled double-blind crossover study. J Oral Pathol Med. 1992 Sep;21(8):376–380. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0714.1992.tb01369.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Albert D. A., Debois L. K., Lu K. F. Antimalarial ocular toxicity a critical appraisal. J Clin Rheumatol. 1998 Apr;4(2):57–62. doi: 10.1097/00124743-199804000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Atkinson J. C., Travis W. D., Pillemer S. R., Bermudez D., Wolff A., Fox P. C. Major salivary gland function in primary Sjögren's syndrome and its relationship to clinical features. J Rheumatol. 1990 Mar;17(3):318–322. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Atkinson J. C., Wu A. J. Salivary gland dysfunction: causes, symptoms, treatment. J Am Dent Assoc. 1994 Apr;125(4):409–416. doi: 10.14219/jada.archive.1994.0059. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bagheri H., Schmitt L., Berlan M., Montastruc J. L. A comparative study of the effects of yohimbine and anetholtrithione on salivary secretion in depressed patients treated with psychotropic drugs. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;52(5):339–342. doi: 10.1007/s002280050298. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Baudet-Pommel M., Albuisson E., Kemeny J. L., Falvard F., Ristori J. M., Fraysse M. P., Sauvezie B. Early dental loss in Sjögren's syndrome. Histologic correlates. European Community Study Group on Diagnostic Criteria for Sjögren's Syndrome (EEC COMAC). Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1994 Aug;78(2):181–186. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(94)90143-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Ben-Aryeh H., Gordon N., Szargel R., Toubi E., Laufer D. Whole saliva in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1993 Jun;75(6):696–699. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(93)90425-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Blom M., Dawidson I., Angmar-Månsson B. The effect of acupuncture on salivary flow rates in patients with xerostomia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1992 Mar;73(3):293–298. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(92)90124-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Bourdette D. N., Whitham R. H., Chou Y. K., Morrison W. J., Atherton J., Kenny C., Liefeld D., Hashim G. A., Offner H., Vandenbark A. A. Immunity to TCR peptides in multiple sclerosis. I. Successful immunization of patients with synthetic V beta 5.2 and V beta 6.1 CDR2 peptides. J Immunol. 1994 Mar 1;152(5):2510–2519. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Budtz-Jörgensen E., Lombardi T. Antifungal therapy in the oral cavity. Periodontol 2000. 1996 Feb;10:89–106. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0757.1996.tb00070.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Budtz-Jörgensen E. The significance of Candida albicans in denture stomatitis. Scand J Dent Res. 1974;82(2):151–190. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0722.1974.tb00378.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cherry-Peppers G., Sorkin J., Andres R., Baum B. J., Ship J. A. Salivary gland function and glucose metabolic status. J Gerontol. 1992 Jul;47(4):M130–M134. doi: 10.1093/geronj/47.4.m130. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Daniels T. E., Silverman S., Jr, Michalski J. P., Greenspan J. S., Sylvester R. A., Talal N. The oral component of Sjögren's syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1975 Jun;39(6):875–885. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(75)90108-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Delporte C., O'Connell B. C., He X., Lancaster H. E., O'Connell A. C., Agre P., Baum B. J. Increased fluid secretion after adenoviral-mediated transfer of the aquaporin-1 cDNA to irradiated rat salivary glands. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Apr 1;94(7):3268–3273. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.7.3268. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Delporte C., Redman R. S., Baum B. J. Relationship between the cellular distribution of the alpha(v)beta3/5 integrins and adenoviral infection in salivary glands. Lab Invest. 1997 Aug;77(2):167–173. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Deodhar A. A., Bennett R. M. Periodontal health in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: comment on the article by Kässer et al. Arthritis Rheum. 1998 Nov;41(11):2081–2083. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199811)41:11<2081::AID-ART26>3.0.CO;2-D. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Donatsky O., Johnsen T., Holmstrup P., Bertram U. Effect of Saliment on parotid salivary gland secretion and on xerostomia caused by Sjögren's syndrome. Scand J Dent Res. 1982 Apr;90(2):157–162. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Drosos A. A., Skopouli F. N., Galanopoulou V. K., Kitridou R. C., Moutsopoulos H. M. Cyclosporin a therapy in patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome: results at one year. Scand J Rheumatol Suppl. 1986;61:246–249. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Duxbury A. J., Thakker N. S., Wastell D. G. A double-blind cross-over trial of a mucin-containing artificial saliva. Br Dent J. 1989 Feb 25;166(4):115–120. doi: 10.1038/sj.bdj.4806731. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Epstein J. B., Decoteau W. E., Wilkinson A. Effect of Sialor in treatment of xerostomia in Sjögren's syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1983 Nov;56(5):495–499. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(83)90096-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Epstein J. B., Schubert M. M. Synergistic effect of sialagogues in management of xerostomia after radiation therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1987 Aug;64(2):179–182. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(87)90087-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Ferraccioli G. F., Salaffi F., De Vita S., Casatta L., Avellini C., Carotti M., Beltrami C. A., Cervini C., Bartoli E. Interferon alpha-2 (IFN alpha 2) increases lacrimal and salivary function in Sjögren's syndrome patients. Preliminary results of an open pilot trial versus OH-chloroquine. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1996 Jul-Aug;14(4):367–371. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Field E. A., Longman L. P., Bucknall R., Kaye S. B., Higham S. M., Edgar W. M. The establishment of a xerostomia clinic: a prospective study. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1997 Apr;35(2):96–103. doi: 10.1016/s0266-4356(97)90683-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Fox P. C., Atkinson J. C., Macynski A. A., Wolff A., Kung D. S., Valdez I. H., Jackson W., Delapenha R. A., Shiroky J., Baum B. J. Pilocarpine treatment of salivary gland hypofunction and dry mouth (xerostomia). Arch Intern Med. 1991 Jun;151(6):1149–1152. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Fox P. C., Datiles M., Atkinson J. C., Macynski A. A., Scott J., Fletcher D., Valdez I. H., Kurrasch R. H., Delapenha R., Jackson W. Prednisone and piroxicam for treatment of primary Sjögren's syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1993 Mar-Apr;11(2):149–156. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Fox P. C., Sarras A. K., Bowers M. R., Drosos A. A., Moutsopoulos H. M. Oral and sialochemical findings in patients with autoimmune rheumatic disease. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1987 Apr-Jun;5(2):123–126. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Fox P. C., Speight P. M. Current concepts of autoimmune exocrinopathy: immunologic mechanisms in the salivary pathology of Sjögren's syndrome. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1996;7(2):144–158. doi: 10.1177/10454411960070020301. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Fox P. C., van der Ven P. F., Baum B. J., Mandel I. D. Pilocarpine for the treatment of xerostomia associated with salivary gland dysfunction. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1986 Mar;61(3):243–248. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(86)90369-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Fox P. C., van der Ven P. F., Sonies B. C., Weiffenbach J. M., Baum B. J. Xerostomia: evaluation of a symptom with increasing significance. J Am Dent Assoc. 1985 Apr;110(4):519–525. doi: 10.14219/jada.archive.1985.0384. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Fox R. I., Chan E., Benton L., Fong S., Friedlaender M., Howell F. V. Treatment of primary Sjögren's syndrome with hydroxychloroquine. Am J Med. 1988 Oct 14;85(4A):62–67. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(88)90365-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Fox R. I., Dixon R., Guarrasi V., Krubel S. Treatment of primary Sjögren's syndrome with hydroxychloroquine: a retrospective, open-label study. Lupus. 1996 Jun;5 (Suppl 1):S31–S36. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Fox R. I., Saito I. Criteria for diagnosis of Sjögren's syndrome. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1994 May;20(2):391–407. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Fox R. I. Treatment of the patient with Sjögren's syndrome. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1992 Aug;18(3):699–709. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Giuliana G., Pizzo G., Milici M. E., Musotto G. C., Giangreco R. In vitro antifungal properties of mouthrinses containing antimicrobial agents. J Periodontol. 1997 Aug;68(8):729–733. doi: 10.1902/jop.1997.68.8.729. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Glenert U. Effects of chronic anethole trithione and amitriptyline treatment on rat parotid gland signalling. Eur J Pharmacol. 1992 May 12;226(1):43–52. doi: 10.1016/0922-4106(92)90081-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Gravenmade E. J., Vissink A. Management of the oral features of Sjögren's syndrome. Neth J Med. 1992 Apr;40(3-4):117–124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Gravenmade E. J., Vissink A. Mucin-containing lozenges in the treatment of intraoral problems associated with Sjögren's syndrome. A double-blind crossover study in 42 patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1993 Apr;75(4):466–471. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(93)90172-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Gudbjörnsson B., Broman J. E., Hetta J., Hällgren R. Sleep disturbances in patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome. Br J Rheumatol. 1993 Dec;32(12):1072–1076. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/32.12.1072. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Helmerhorst E. J., Van't Hof W., Veerman E. C., Simoons-Smit I., Nieuw Amerongen A. V. Synthetic histatin analogues with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Biochem J. 1997 Aug 15;326(Pt 1):39–45. doi: 10.1042/bj3260039. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Holmes A. R., Cannon R. D., Jenkinson H. F. Interactions of Candida albicans with bacteria and salivary molecules in oral biofilms. J Ind Microbiol. 1995 Sep;15(3):208–213. doi: 10.1007/BF01569827. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Imai F., Suzuki T., Ishibashi T., Tanaka M., Akiyama Y., Dohi Y. Effect of sulfasalazine on B cell hyperactivity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1994 Apr;21(4):612–615. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Jansma J., Vissink A., Gravenmade E. J., Visch L. L., Fidler V., Retief D. H. In vivo study on the prevention of postradiation caries. Caries Res. 1989;23(3):172–178. doi: 10.1159/000261173. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Johansson G., Andersson G., Attström R., Glantz P. O., Larsson K. The effect of Salinum on the symptoms of dry mouth: a pilot study. Gerodontology. 1994 Jul;11(1):46–49. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-2358.1994.tb00102.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Johnson J. T., Ferretti G. A., Nethery W. J., Valdez I. H., Fox P. C., Ng D., Muscoplat C. C., Gallagher S. C. Oral pilocarpine for post-irradiation xerostomia in patients with head and neck cancer. N Engl J Med. 1993 Aug 5;329(6):390–395. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199308053290603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Joyston-Bechal S., Hayes K., Davenport E. S., Hardie J. M. Caries incidence, mutans streptococci and lactobacilli in irradiated patients during a 12-month preventive programme using chlorhexidine and fluoride. Caries Res. 1992;26(5):384–390. doi: 10.1159/000261473. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Kirstilä V., Lenander-Lumikari M., Söderling E., Tenovuo J. Effects of oral hygiene products containing lactoperoxidase, lysozyme, and lactoferrin on the composition of whole saliva and on subjective oral symptoms in patients with xerostomia. Acta Odontol Scand. 1996 Dec;54(6):391–397. doi: 10.3109/00016359609003557. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Klestov A. C., Webb J., Latt D., Schiller G., McNamara K., Young D. Y., Hobbes J., Fetherston J. Treatment of xerostomia: a double-blind trial in 108 patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1981 Jun;51(6):594–599. doi: 10.1016/s0030-4220(81)80008-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Knepper M. A. The aquaporin family of molecular water channels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Jul 5;91(14):6255–6258. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.14.6255. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Kruize A. A., Hené R. J., Kallenberg C. G., van Bijsterveld O. P., van der Heide A., Kater L., Bijlsma J. W. Hydroxychloroquine treatment for primary Sjögren's syndrome: a two year double blind crossover trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 1993 May;52(5):360–364. doi: 10.1136/ard.52.5.360. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Kässer U. R., Gleissner C., Dehne F., Michel A., Willershausen-Zönnchen B., Bolten W. W. Risk for periodontal disease in patients with longstanding rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1997 Dec;40(12):2248–2251. doi: 10.1002/art.1780401221. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Lakhanpal S., Duffy J., Griffing W. L., Conn D. L., Luthra H. S. Sjögren's syndrome: treatment with D-penicillamine and hydroxychloroquine. J Rheumatol. 1985 Oct;12(5):1028–1029. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Leroy J. P., Drosos A. A., Yiannopoulos D. I., Youinou P., Moutsopoulos H. M. Intravenous pulse cyclophosphamide therapy in myositis and Sjögren's syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 1990 Oct;33(10):1579–1581. doi: 10.1002/art.1780331017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Levy G. D., Munz S. J., Paschal J., Cohen H. B., Pince K. J., Peterson T. Incidence of hydroxychloroquine retinopathy in 1,207 patients in a large multicenter outpatient practice. Arthritis Rheum. 1997 Aug;40(8):1482–1486. doi: 10.1002/art.1780400817. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Lockhart P. B., Fox P. C., Gentry A. C., Acharya R., Norton H. J. Pilot study of controlled-release pilocarpine in normal subjects. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1996 Nov;82(5):517–524. doi: 10.1016/s1079-2104(96)80196-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Lundström I. M., Lindström F. D. Subjective and clinical oral symptoms in patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1995 Nov-Dec;13(6):725–731. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Mandel I. D., Baurmash H. Sialochemistry in Sjögren's syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1976 Feb;41(2):182–187. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(76)90229-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Mandel I. D. The role of saliva in maintaining oral homeostasis. J Am Dent Assoc. 1989 Aug;119(2):298–304. doi: 10.14219/jada.archive.1989.0211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Marks N. J., Roberts B. J. A proposed new method for the treatment of dry mouth. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 1983 May;65(3):191–193. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Matzker J., Schreiber J. Synthetischer Speichel zur Therapie der Hyposialien, insbesondere bei der radiogenen Sialadenitis. Z Laryngol Rhinol Otol. 1972 Jul;51(7):422–428. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Medaer R., Stinissen P., Truyen L., Raus J., Zhang J. Depletion of myelin-basic-protein autoreactive T cells by T-cell vaccination: pilot trial in multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 1995 Sep 23;346(8978):807–808. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(95)91622-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Mellema J., Holterman H. J., Waterman H. A., Blom C., Gravenmade E. J. Rheological aspects of mucin-containing solutions and saliva substitutes. Biorheology. 1992 Mar-Jun;29(2-3):231–249. doi: 10.3233/bir-1992-292-304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Moreland L. W., Heck L. W., Jr, Koopman W. J., Saway P. A., Adamson T. C., Fronek Z., O'Connor R. D., Morgan E. E., Diveley J. P., Richieri S. P. V beta 17 T cell receptor peptide vaccination in rheumatoid arthritis: results of phase I dose escalation study. J Rheumatol. 1996 Aug;23(8):1353–1362. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Najera M. P., al-Hashimi I., Plemons J. M., Rivera-Hidalgo F., Rees T. D., Haghighat N., Wright J. M. Prevalence of periodontal disease in patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1997 Apr;83(4):453–457. doi: 10.1016/s1079-2104(97)90144-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Newbrun E. Current treatment modalities of oral problems of patients with Sjögren's syndrome: caries prevention. Adv Dent Res. 1996 Apr;10(1):29–34. doi: 10.1177/08959374960100010401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Page R. C., Offenbacher S., Schroeder H. E., Seymour G. J., Kornman K. S. Advances in the pathogenesis of periodontitis: summary of developments, clinical implications and future directions. Periodontol 2000. 1997 Jun;14:216–248. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0757.1997.tb00199.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Papas A. S., Fernandez M. M., Castano R. A., Gallagher S. C., Trivedi M., Shrotriya R. C. Oral pilocarpine for symptomatic relief of dry mouth and dry eyes in patients with Sjögrens syndrome. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1998;438:973–978. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-5359-5_139. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Papas A. S., Joshi A., MacDonald S. L., Maravelis-Splagounias L., Pretara-Spanedda P., Curro F. A. Caries prevalence in xerostomic individuals. J Can Dent Assoc. 1993 Feb;59(2):171-4, 177-9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Price E. J., Rigby S. P., Clancy U., Venables P. J. A double blind placebo controlled trial of azathioprine in the treatment of primary Sjögren's syndrome. J Rheumatol. 1998 May;25(5):896–899. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Regelink G., Vissink A., Reintsema H., Nauta J. M. Efficacy of a synthetic polymer saliva substitute in reducing oral complaints of patients suffering from irradiation-induced xerostomia. Quintessence Int. 1998 Jun;29(6):383–388. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Rhodus N. L., Bloomquist C., Liljemark W., Bereuter J. Prevalence, density, and manifestations of oral Candida albicans in patients with Sjögren's syndrome. J Otolaryngol. 1997 Oct;26(5):300–305. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Rhodus N. L., Moller K., Colby S., Bereuter J. Dysphagia in patients with three different etiologies of salivary gland dysfunction. Ear Nose Throat J. 1995 Jan;74(1):39-42, 45-8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Rhodus N. L. Oral pilocarpine HCl stimulates labial (minor) salivary gland flow in patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Oral Dis. 1997 Jun;3(2):93–98. doi: 10.1111/j.1601-0825.1997.tb00019.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Rhodus N. L., Schuh M. J. Effects of pilocarpine on salivary flow in patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1991 Nov;72(5):545–549. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(91)90491-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Shannon I. L., Trodahl J. N., Starcke E. N. Remineralization of enamel by a saliva substitute designed for use by irradiated patients. Cancer. 1978 May;41(5):1746–1750. doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(197805)41:5<1746::aid-cncr2820410515>3.0.co;2-c. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Shiozawa S., Tanaka Y., Shiozawa K. Single-blinded controlled trial of low-dose oral IFN-alpha for the treatment of xerostomia in patients with Sjögren's syndrome. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 1998 Apr;18(4):255–262. doi: 10.1089/jir.1998.18.255. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Singhal S., Mehta J., Rattenbury H., Treleaven J., Powles R. Oral pilocarpine hydrochloride for the treatment of refractory xerostomia associated with chronic graft-versus-host disease. Blood. 1995 Feb 15;85(4):1147–1148. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Skopouli F. N., Jagiello P., Tsifetaki N., Moutsopoulos H. M. Methotrexate in primary Sjögren's syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1996 Sep-Oct;14(5):555–558. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Soto-Rojas A. E., Villa A. R., Sifuentes-Osornio J., Alarcón-Segovia D., Kraus A. Oral candidiasis and Sjögren's syndrome. J Rheumatol. 1998 May;25(5):911–915. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Soto-Rojas A. E., Villa A. R., Sifuentes-Osornio J., Alarcón-Segovia D., Kraus A. Oral manifestations in patients with Sjögren's syndrome. J Rheumatol. 1998 May;25(5):906–910. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Spak C. J., Johnson G., Ekstrand J. Caries incidence, salivary flow rate and efficacy of fluoride gel treatment in irradiated patients. Caries Res. 1994;28(5):388–393. doi: 10.1159/000262007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Speight P. M., Kaul A., Melsom R. D. Measurement of whole unstimulated salivary flow in the diagnosis of Sjögren's syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis. 1992 Apr;51(4):499–502. doi: 10.1136/ard.51.4.499. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Sreebny L. M. Salivary flow in health and disease. Compend Suppl. 1989;(13):S461–S469. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Sreebny L. M., Schwartz S. S. A reference guide to drugs and dry mouth. Gerodontology. 1986 Autumn;5(2):75–99. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-2358.1986.tb00055.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Sreebny L. M., Yu A., Green A., Valdini A. Xerostomia in diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 1992 Jul;15(7):900–904. doi: 10.2337/diacare.15.7.900. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Sullivan D. A. Sex hormones and Sjögren's syndrome. J Rheumatol Suppl. 1997 Sep;50:17–32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Talal N., Quinn J. H., Daniels T. E. The clinical effects of electrostimulation on salivary function of Sjögren's syndrome patients. A placebo controlled study. Rheumatol Int. 1992;12(2):43–45. doi: 10.1007/BF00300975. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Tapper-Jones L., Aldred M., Walker D. M. Prevalence and intraoral distribution of Candida albicans in Sjögren's syndrome. J Clin Pathol. 1980 Mar;33(3):282–287. doi: 10.1136/jcp.33.3.282. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Valdez I. H., Atkinson J. C., Ship J. A., Fox P. C. Major salivary gland function in patients with radiation-induced xerostomia: flow rates and sialochemistry. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1993 Jan;25(1):41–47. doi: 10.1016/0360-3016(93)90143-j. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Van der Reijden W. A., Veerman E. C., Nieuw Amerongen A. V. Rheological properties of commercially available polysaccharides with potential use in saliva substitutes. Biorheology. 1994 Nov-Dec;31(6):631–642. doi: 10.3233/bir-1994-31604. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Vandenbark A. A., Chou Y. K., Whitham R., Mass M., Buenafe A., Liefeld D., Kavanagh D., Cooper S., Hashim G. A., Offner H. Treatment of multiple sclerosis with T-cell receptor peptides: results of a double-blind pilot trial. Nat Med. 1996 Oct;2(10):1109–1115. doi: 10.1038/nm1096-1109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Visch L. L., Gravenmade E. J., Schaub R. M., Van Putten W. L., Vissink A. A double-blind crossover trial of CMC- and mucin-containing saliva substitutes. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1986 Aug;15(4):395–400. doi: 10.1016/s0300-9785(86)80027-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Vissink A., De Jong H. P., Busscher H. J., Arends J., Gravenmade E. J. Wetting properties of human saliva and saliva substitutes. J Dent Res. 1986 Sep;65(9):1121–1124. doi: 10.1177/00220345860650090301. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Vissink A., Panders A. K., Nauta J. M., Ligeon E. E., Nikkels P. G., Kallenberg C. G. Applicability of saliva as a diagnostic fluid in Sjögren's syndrome. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1993 Sep 20;694:325–329. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb18379.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Vissink A., Schaub R. M., van Rijn L. J., Gravenmade E. J., Panders A. K., Vermey A. The efficacy of mucin-containing artificial saliva in alleviating symptoms of xerostomia. Gerodontology. 1987 Autumn;6(3):95–101. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-2358.1987.tb00283.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Vissink A., s-Gravenmade E. J., Panders A. K., Vermey A., Petersen J. K., Visch L. L., Schaub R. M. A clinical comparison between commercially available mucin- and CMC-containing saliva substitutes. Int J Oral Surg. 1983 Aug;12(4):232–238. doi: 10.1016/s0300-9785(83)80048-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Vitali C., Bombardieri S., Moutsopoulos H. M., Balestrieri G., Bencivelli W., Bernstein R. M., Bjerrum K. B., Braga S., Coll J., de Vita S. Preliminary criteria for the classification of Sjögren's syndrome. Results of a prospective concerted action supported by the European Community. Arthritis Rheum. 1993 Mar;36(3):340–347. doi: 10.1002/art.1780360309. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Vitali C., Moutsopoulos H. M., Bombardieri S. The European Community Study Group on diagnostic criteria for Sjögren's syndrome. Sensitivity and specificity of tests for ocular and oral involvement in Sjögren's syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis. 1994 Oct;53(10):637–647. doi: 10.1136/ard.53.10.637. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Weiffenbach J. M., Schwartz L. K., Atkinson J. C., Fox P. C. Taste performance in Sjogren's syndrome. Physiol Behav. 1995 Jan;57(1):89–96. doi: 10.1016/0031-9384(94)00211-m. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Weisz A. S. The use of a saliva substitute as treatment for xerostomia in Sjögren's syndrome--a case report. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1981 Oct;52(4):384–386. doi: 10.1016/0030-4220(81)90335-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Wiseman L. R., Faulds D. Oral pilocarpine: a review of its pharmacological properties and clinical potential in xerostomia. Drugs. 1995 Jan;49(1):143–155. doi: 10.2165/00003495-199549010-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Yanaura S., Takeda H., Nishimura T., Misawa M. Effect of pilocarpine on behavior of mucus glycoproteins of canine tracheal secretory cells. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1982 Feb;32(1):29–35. doi: 10.1254/jjp.32.29. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Zelickson B. D., Rogers R. S., 3rd Drug reactions involving the mouth. Clin Dermatol. 1986 Jan-Mar;4(1):98–109. doi: 10.1016/0738-081x(86)90013-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. van Laar J. M., de Vries R. R., Breedveld F. C. T cell vaccination in humans: the experience in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1993 Mar-Apr;11 (Suppl 8):S59–S62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. van der Reijden W. A., Buijs M. J., Damen J. J., Veerman E. C., ten Cate J. M., Nieuw Amerongen A. V. Influence of polymers for use in saliva substitutes on de- and remineralization of enamel in vitro. Caries Res. 1997;31(3):216–223. doi: 10.1159/000262403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. van der Reijden W. A., van der Kwaak H., Vissink A., Veerman E. C., Amerongen A. V. Treatment of xerostomia with polymer-based saliva substitutes in patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 1996 Jan;39(1):57–63. doi: 10.1002/art.1780390108. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. van der Reijden W. A., van der Kwaak J. S., Veerman E. C., Nieuw Amerongen A. V. Analysis of the concentration and output of whole salivary constituents in patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Eur J Oral Sci. 1996 Aug;104(4 ):335–340. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0722.1996.tb00088.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES