Skip to main content
PMC home page
Occupational and Environmental Medicine logoLink to Occupational and Environmental Medicine
. 1998 May;55(5):291–299. doi: 10.1136/oem.55.5.291

Assessment of mechanical exposure in ergonomic epidemiology

A J van der Beek, M H Frings-Dresen
PMCID: PMC1757583  PMID: 9764106

Abstract

In recent years several different methods have been developed to assess mechanical exposures, which are related to musculoskeletal disorders in ergonomic epidemiology. Each of these methods is capable of measuring one or more aspects of risk factors, but has drawbacks as well. Improper application of methods might result in biased exposure estimates, which has serious consequences for risk estimates arising from epidemiological studies. The aim of this paper was to systematically evaluate the usefulness of different measurement methods in terms of accuracy and applicability. Assessment of external exposure measures by subjective judgements (from experts or self reports from workers), observational methods (on site or afterwards from video recordings), and direct measurements methods (at work or during laboratory simulations) are discussed for each of the dimensions of exposure level, duration, and frequency. It is concluded that expert judgements and self reports give only limited insight into the occurrence of tasks and activities. Further information can be obtained from observations, which can best be combined with direct measurements of exposure to posture, movement, and exerted forces to achieve exposure profiles by occupational task. Internal exposures estimated by biomechanical modelling mostly consider the low back and require information on postures of the different body segments and exerted forces, completed with movement data in the case of dynamic models. Moreover, electromyography (EMG) and measurements of intra-abdominal pressure might be used for this purpose. Both biomechanical models and EMG are useful methods to assess internal exposure, but biomechanical models should not be restricted to the level of compressive forces on the lower back. Finally, current problems and future directions in measurement strategies and methods are discussed.

 

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (120.7 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Armstrong T. J., Buckle P., Fine L. J., Hagberg M., Jonsson B., Kilbom A., Kuorinka I. A., Silverstein B. A., Sjogaard G., Viikari-Juntura E. R. A conceptual model for work-related neck and upper-limb musculoskeletal disorders. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1993 Apr;19(2):73–84. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.1494. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Bongers P. M., de Winter C. R., Kompier M. A., Hildebrandt V. H. Psychosocial factors at work and musculoskeletal disease. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1993 Oct;19(5):297–312. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.1470. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Burdorf A. Bias in risk estimates from variability of exposure to postural load on the back in occupational groups. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1993 Feb;19(1):50–54. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.1504. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Burdorf A. Exposure assessment of risk factors for disorders of the back in occupational epidemiology. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1992 Feb;18(1):1–9. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.1615. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Burdorf A., Laan J. Comparison of methods for the assessment of postural load on the back. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1991 Dec;17(6):425–429. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.1679. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Burdorf A., Rossignol M., Fathallah F. A., Snook S. H., Herrick R. F. Challenges in assessing risk factors in epidemiologic studies on back disorders. Am J Ind Med. 1997 Aug;32(2):142–152. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199708)32:2<142::aid-ajim5>3.0.co;2-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Burdorf A., Sorock G. Positive and negative evidence of risk factors for back disorders. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1997 Aug;23(4):243–256. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.217. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Burdorf A. Sources of variance in exposure to postural load on the back in occupational groups. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1992 Dec;18(6):361–367. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.1561. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Campbell L., Pannett B., Egger P., Cooper C., Coggon D. Validity of a questionnaire for assessing occupational activities. Am J Ind Med. 1997 Apr;31(4):422–426. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199704)31:4<422::aid-ajim7>3.0.co;2-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. DeLooze M. P., Toussaint H. M., Ensink J., Mangnus C., van der Beek A. J. The validity of visual observation to assess posture in a laboratory-simulated, manual material handling task. Ergonomics. 1994 Aug;37(8):1335–1343. doi: 10.1080/00140139408964912. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Genaidy A. M., Simmons R. J., Guo L., Hidalgo J. A. Can visual perception be used to estimate body part angles? Ergonomics. 1993 Apr;36(4):323–329. doi: 10.1080/00140139308967889. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Hagberg M. Exposure variables in ergonomic epidemiology. Am J Ind Med. 1992;21(1):91–100. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700210111. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Hansson T. H., Keller T. S., Spengler D. M. Mechanical behavior of the human lumbar spine. II. Fatigue strength during dynamic compressive loading. J Orthop Res. 1987;5(4):479–487. doi: 10.1002/jor.1100050403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Heinrich I., Otun E. O., Anderson J. A. Reproducibility of surface electromyogram and intra-abdominal pressure for use in ambulatory monitoring. Ergonomics. 1988 Dec;31(12):1821–1835. doi: 10.1080/00140138808966830. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Kilbom A. Assessment of physical exposure in relation to work-related musculoskeletal disorders--what information can be obtained from systematic observations? Scand J Work Environ Health. 1994;20(Spec No):30–45. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Kumar S. Cumulative load as a risk factor for back pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1990 Dec;15(12):1311–1316. doi: 10.1097/00007632-199012000-00014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Kumar S. Perception of posture of short duration in the spatial and temporal domains. Appl Ergon. 1993 Oct;24(5):345–350. doi: 10.1016/0003-6870(93)90073-i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Lin M. L., Radwin R. G., Snook S. H. A single metric for quantifying biomechanical stress in repetitive motions and exertions. Ergonomics. 1997 May;40(5):543–558. doi: 10.1080/001401397188026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Magnusson M., Granqvist M., Jonson R., Lindell V., Lundberg U., Wallin L., Hansson T. The loads on the lumbar spine during work at an assembly line. The risks for fatigue injuries of vertebral bodies. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1990 Aug;15(8):774–779. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Marras W. S., Lavender S. A., Leurgans S. E., Fathallah F. A., Ferguson S. A., Allread W. G., Rajulu S. L. Biomechanical risk factors for occupationally related low back disorders. Ergonomics. 1995 Feb;38(2):377–410. doi: 10.1080/00140139508925111. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Marras W. S., Schoenmarklin R. W. Wrist motions in industry. Ergonomics. 1993 Apr;36(4):341–351. doi: 10.1080/00140139308967891. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. McGill S. M., Norman R. W. Reassessment of the role of intra-abdominal pressure in spinal compression. Ergonomics. 1987 Nov;30(11):1565–1588. doi: 10.1080/00140138708966048. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Nachemson A. L., Andersson B. J., Schultz A. B. Valsalva maneuver biomechanics. Effects on lumbar trunk loads of elevated intraabdominal pressures. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1986 Jun;11(5):476–479. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Ortiz D. J., Marcus M., Gerr F., Jones W., Cohen S. Measurement variability in upper extremity posture among VDT users. Appl Ergon. 1997 Apr;28(2):139–143. doi: 10.1016/s0003-6870(96)00053-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Riihimäki H. Low-back pain, its origin and risk indicators. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1991 Apr;17(2):81–90. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Seixas N. S., Sheppard L. Maximizing accuracy and precision using individual and grouped exposure assessments. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1996 Apr;22(2):94–101. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.116. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Selin K., Winkel J., Stockholm-MUSIC I study group Evaluation of two instruments for recording sitting and standing postures and number of foot steps. Appl Ergon. 1994 Feb;25(1):41–46. doi: 10.1016/0003-6870(94)90030-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Soter N. A., Wasserman S. I., Austen K. F. Cold urticaria: release into the circulation of histamine and eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis during cold challenge. N Engl J Med. 1976 Mar 25;294(13):687–690. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197603252941302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Van der Beek A. J., Braam I. T., Douwes M., Bongers P. M., Frings-Dresen M. H., Verbeek J. H., Luyts S. Validity of a diary estimating exposure to tasks, activities, and postures of the trunk. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1994;66(3):173–178. doi: 10.1007/BF00380776. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Veltink P. H., Bussmann H. B., de Vries W., Martens W. L., Van Lummel R. C. Detection of static and dynamic activities using uniaxial accelerometers. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng. 1996 Dec;4(4):375–385. doi: 10.1109/86.547939. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Waters T. R., Putz-Anderson V., Garg A., Fine L. J. Revised NIOSH equation for the design and evaluation of manual lifting tasks. Ergonomics. 1993 Jul;36(7):749–776. doi: 10.1080/00140139308967940. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Wells R., Norman R., Neumann P., Andrews D., Frank J., Shannon H., Kerr M. Assessment of physical work load in epidemiologic studies: common measurement metrics for exposure assessment. Ergonomics. 1997 Jan;40(1):51–61. doi: 10.1080/001401397188369. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Westgaard R. H., Winkel J. Guidelines for occupational musculoskeletal load as a basis for intervention: a critical review. Appl Ergon. 1996 Apr;27(2):79–88. doi: 10.1016/0003-6870(95)00062-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Wiktorin C., Karlqvist L., Winkel J. Validity of self-reported exposures to work postures and manual materials handling. Stockholm MUSIC I Study Group. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1993 Jun;19(3):208–214. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.1481. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Wiktorin C., Selin K., Ekenvall L., Kilbom A., Alfredsson L. Evaluation of perceived and self-reported manual forces exerted in occupational materials handling. Appl Ergon. 1996 Aug;27(4):231–239. doi: 10.1016/0003-6870(96)00006-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Winkel J., Mathiassen S. E. Assessment of physical work load in epidemiologic studies: concepts, issues and operational considerations. Ergonomics. 1994 Jun;37(6):979–988. doi: 10.1080/00140139408963711. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. de Looze M. P., Visser B., Houting I., van Rooy M. A., van Dieën J. H., Toussaint H. M. Weight and frequency effect on spinal loading in a bricklaying task. J Biomech. 1996 Nov;29(11):1425–1433. doi: 10.1016/0021-9290(96)84538-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. van Dieen J. H., Toussaint H. M. Evaluation of the probability of spinal damage caused by sustained cyclic compression loading. Hum Factors. 1997 Sep;39(3):469–480. doi: 10.1518/001872097778827089. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. van Dieën J. H., Toussaint H. M. Application of the maximum energy criterion to describe the strength of the motion segment under axial compression. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1995 Mar 1;20(5):518–525. doi: 10.1097/00007632-199503010-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. van Tulder M. W., Koes B. W., Bouter L. M. A cost-of-illness study of back pain in The Netherlands. Pain. 1995 Aug;62(2):233–240. doi: 10.1016/0304-3959(94)00272-G. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. van der Beek A. J., Kuiper J. I., Dawson M., Burdorf A., Bongers P. M., Frings-Dresen M. H. Sources of variance in exposure to nonneutral trunk postures in varying work situations. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1995 Jun;21(3):215–222. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. van der Beek A. J., van Gaalen L. C., Frings-Dresen M. H. Working postures and activities of lorry drivers: a reliability study of on-site observation and recording on a pocket computer. Appl Ergon. 1992 Oct;23(5):331–336. doi: 10.1016/0003-6870(92)90294-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. van der Helm F. C. A finite element musculoskeletal model of the shoulder mechanism. J Biomech. 1994 May;27(5):551–569. doi: 10.1016/0021-9290(94)90065-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. van der Helm F. C. Analysis of the kinematic and dynamic behavior of the shoulder mechanism. J Biomech. 1994 May;27(5):527–550. doi: 10.1016/0021-9290(94)90064-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Occupational and Environmental Medicine are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES