Skip to main content
PMC home page
Thorax logoLink to Thorax
. 2001 Dec;56(Suppl 4):iv1–iv64. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.suppl_4.iv1

BTS Guidelines for the Management of Community Acquired Pneumonia in Adults

PMCID: PMC1765992  PMID: 11713364

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (552.8 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Ahmed A. E., Nicholson K. G., Nguyen-Van-Tam J. S. Reduction in mortality associated with influenza vaccine during 1989-90 epidemic. Lancet. 1995 Sep 2;346(8975):591–595. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(95)91434-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Ailani R. K., Agastya G., Ailani R. K., Mukunda B. N., Shekar R. Doxycycline is a cost-effective therapy for hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 1999 Feb 8;159(3):266–270. doi: 10.1001/archinte.159.3.266. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Alkhayer M., Jenkins P. F., Harrison B. D. The outcome of community acquired pneumonia treated on the intensive care unit. Respir Med. 1990 Jan;84(1):13–16. doi: 10.1016/s0954-6111(08)80087-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Almirall J., Bolíbar I., Vidal J., Sauca G., Coll P., Niklasson B., Bartolomé M., Balanzó X. Epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a population-based study. Eur Respir J. 2000 Apr;15(4):757–763. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.15d21.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Almirall J., Mesalles E., Klamburg J., Parra O., Agudo A. Prognostic factors of pneumonia requiring admission to the intensive care unit. Chest. 1995 Feb;107(2):511–516. doi: 10.1378/chest.107.2.511. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Almirall J., Morató I., Riera F., Verdaguer A., Priu R., Coll P., Vidal J., Murgui L., Valls F., Catalan F. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection: a prospective multicentre study. Eur Respir J. 1993 Jan;6(1):14–18. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Amsden G. W. Pneumococcal macrolide resistance--myth or reality? J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999 Jul;44(1):1–6. doi: 10.1093/jac/44.1.1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Anderson G., Esmonde T. S., Coles S., Macklin J., Carnegie C. A comparative safety and efficacy study of clarithromycin and erythromycin stearate in community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1991 Feb;27 (Suppl A):117–124. doi: 10.1093/jac/27.suppl_a.117. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Andrews J., Ashby J., Jevons G., Marshall T., Lines N., Wise R. A comparison of antimicrobial resistance rates in Gram-positive pathogens isolated in the UK from October 1996 to January 1997 and October 1997 to January 1998. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000 Mar;45(3):285–293. doi: 10.1093/jac/45.3.285. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Atlas S. J., Benzer T. I., Borowsky L. H., Chang Y., Burnham D. C., Metlay J. P., Halm E. A., Singer D. E. Safely increasing the proportion of patients with community-acquired pneumonia treated as outpatients: an interventional trial. Arch Intern Med. 1998 Jun 22;158(12):1350–1356. doi: 10.1001/archinte.158.12.1350. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Aubertin J., Dabis F., Fleurette J., Bornstein N., Salamon R., Brottier E., Brune J., Vincent P., Migueres J., Jover A. Prevalence of legionellosis among adults: a study of community-acquired pneumonia in France. Infection. 1987;15(5):328–331. doi: 10.1007/BF01647732. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Aubier M., Lode H., Gialdroni-Grassi G., Huchon G., Hosie J., Legakis N., Regamey C., Segev S., Vester R., Wijnands W. J. Sparfloxacin for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a pooled data analysis of two studies. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1996 May;37 (Suppl A):73–82. doi: 10.1093/jac/37.suppl_a.73. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Aubier M., Verster R., Regamey C., Geslin P., Vercken J. B. Once-daily sparfloxacin versus high-dosage amoxicillin in the treatment of community-acquired, suspected pneumococcal pneumonia in adults. Sparfloxacin European Study Group. Clin Infect Dis. 1998 Jun;26(6):1312–1320. doi: 10.1086/516366. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Ausina V., Coll P., Sambeat M., Puig I., Condom M. J., Luquin M., Ballester F., Prats G. Prospective study on the etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in children and adults in Spain. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1988 Jun;7(3):342–347. doi: 10.1007/BF01962334. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Bartlett J. G., Dowell S. F., Mandell L. A., File Jr T. M., Musher D. M., Fine M. J. Practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Sep 7;31(2):347–382. doi: 10.1086/313954. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bartoloni A., Strohmeyer M., Corti G., Buonomini M. I., Franchino L., Romanelli G., Moretti A. M., De Vizzi G. B., Petraglia A., Mancini P. Multicenter randomized trial comparing meropenem (1.5 g daily) and imipenem/cilastatin (2 g daily) in the hospital treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 1999;25(6):243–252. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Bates J. H., Campbell G. D., Barron A. L., McCracken G. A., Morgan P. N., Moses E. B., Davis C. M. Microbial etiology of acute pneumonia in hospitalized patients. Chest. 1992 Apr;101(4):1005–1012. doi: 10.1378/chest.101.4.1005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Baumgartner J. D., Glauser M. P. Tolerance study of ceftriaxone compared with amoxicillin in patients with pneumonia. Am J Med. 1984 Oct 19;77(4C):54–58. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Beall D. P., Scott W. W., Jr, Kuhlman J. E., Hofmann L. V., Moore R. D., Mundy L. M. Utilization of computed tomography in patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Md Med J. 1998 Aug;47(4):182–187. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Berntsson E., Blomberg J., Lagergård T., Trollfors B. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in patients requiring hospitalization. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1985 Jun;4(3):268–272. doi: 10.1007/BF02013650. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Berntsson E., Lagergård T., Strannegård O., Trollfors B. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in out-patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol. 1986 Aug;5(4):446–447. doi: 10.1007/BF02075702. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Beyer W. E., de Bruijn I. A., Palache A. M., Westendorp R. G., Osterhaus A. D. Protection against influenza after annually repeated vaccination: a meta-analysis of serologic and field studies. Arch Intern Med. 1999 Jan 25;159(2):182–188. doi: 10.1001/archinte.159.2.182. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Bignardi G. E. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 1998 Sep;40(1):1–15. doi: 10.1016/s0195-6701(98)90019-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Birtles R. J., Harrison T. G., Samuel D., Taylor A. G. Evaluation of urinary antigen ELISA for diagnosing Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 infection. J Clin Pathol. 1990 Aug;43(8):685–690. doi: 10.1136/jcp.43.8.685. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Björkqvist M., Wiberg B., Bodin L., Bárány M., Holmberg H. Bottle-blowing in hospital-treated patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis. 1997;29(1):77–82. doi: 10.3109/00365549709008669. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Blanquer J., Blanquer R., Borrás R., Nauffal D., Morales P., Menéndez R., Subías I., Herrero L., Redón J., Pascual J. Aetiology of community acquired pneumonia in Valencia, Spain: a multicentre prospective study. Thorax. 1991 Jul;46(7):508–511. doi: 10.1136/thx.46.7.508. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Blaser M. J., Klaus B. D., Jacobson J. A., Kasworm E., LaForce F. M. Comparison of cefadroxil and cephalexin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1983 Aug;24(2):163–167. doi: 10.1128/aac.24.2.163. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Blasi F., Cosentini R., Raccanelli R., Rinaldi A., Denti F., Loprete F., Allegra L. Emerging pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia: a two-year prospective study. J Chemother. 1995 Nov;7 (Suppl 4):115–116. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Bohte R., Hermans J., van den Broek P. J. Early recognition of Streptococcus pneumoniae in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1996 Mar;15(3):201–205. doi: 10.1007/BF01591354. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Bohte R., van Furth R., van den Broek P. J. Aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia: a prospective study among adults requiring admission to hospital. Thorax. 1995 May;50(5):543–547. doi: 10.1136/thx.50.5.543. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Bohte R., van't Wout J. W., Lobatto S., Blussé van Oud Alblas A., Boekhout M., Nauta E. H., Hermans J., van den Broek P. J. Efficacy and safety of azithromycin versus benzylpenicillin or erythromycin in community-acquired pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1995 Mar;14(3):182–187. doi: 10.1007/BF02310353. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Boman J., Allard A., Persson K., Lundborg M., Juto P., Wadell G. Rapid diagnosis of respiratory Chlamydia pneumoniae infection by nested touchdown polymerase chain reaction compared with culture and antigen detection by EIA. J Infect Dis. 1997 Jun;175(6):1523–1526. doi: 10.1086/516492. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Bone R. C., Balk R. A., Cerra F. B., Dellinger R. P., Fein A. M., Knaus W. A., Schein R. M., Sibbald W. J. Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine. Chest. 1992 Jun;101(6):1644–1655. doi: 10.1378/chest.101.6.1644. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Boonsawat W., Boonma P., Tangdajahiran T., Paupermpoonsiri S., Wongpratoom W., Romphryk A. Community-acquired pneumonia in adults at Srinagarind Hospital. J Med Assoc Thai. 1990 Jun;73(6):345–352. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Boswell T. C., Marshall L. E., Kudesia G. False-positive legionella titres in routine clinical serology testing detected by absorption with campylobacter: implications for the serological diagnosis of legionnaires' disease. J Infect. 1996 Jan;32(1):23–26. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(96)80005-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Boswell T. C., Nye K. J., Smith E. G. Increased incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 1998 May;39(1):78–79. doi: 10.1016/s0195-6701(98)90249-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Burgess D. S., Lewis J. S., 2nd Effect of macrolides as part of initial empiric therapy on medical outcomes for hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Ther. 2000 Jul;22(7):872–878. doi: 10.1016/s0149-2918(00)80059-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Burman L. A., Trollfors B., Andersson B., Henrichsen J., Juto P., Kallings I., Lagergård T., Möllby R., Norrby R. Diagnosis of pneumonia by cultures, bacterial and viral antigen detection tests, and serology with special reference to antibodies against pneumococcal antigens. J Infect Dis. 1991 May;163(5):1087–1093. doi: 10.1093/infdis/163.5.1087. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Cabellos C., Ariza J., Barreiro B., Tubau F., Liñares J., Pallarés R., Manresa F., Gudiol F. Current usefulness of procaine penicillin in the treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998 Apr;17(4):265–268. doi: 10.1007/BF01699983. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Carbon C., Léophonte P., Petitpretz P., Chauvin J. P., Hazebroucq J. Efficacy and safety of temafloxacin versus those of amoxicillin in hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992 Apr;36(4):833–839. doi: 10.1128/aac.36.4.833. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Carbon C., Poole M. D. The role of newer macrolides in the treatment of community-acquired respiratory tract infection. A review of experimental and clinical data. J Chemother. 1999 Apr;11(2):107–118. doi: 10.1179/joc.1999.11.2.107. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Caron F., Meurice J. C., Ingrand P., Bourgoin A., Masson P., Roblot P., Patte F. Acute Q fever pneumonia: a review of 80 hospitalized patients. Chest. 1998 Sep;114(3):808–813. doi: 10.1378/chest.114.3.808. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Cassell G. H., Drnec J., Waites K. B., Pate M. S., Duffy L. B., Watson H. L., McIntosh J. C. Efficacy of clarithromycin against Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1991 Feb;27 (Suppl A):47–59. doi: 10.1093/jac/27.suppl_a.47. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Chan C. H., Cohen M., Pang J. A prospective study of community-acquired pneumonia in Hong Kong. Chest. 1992 Feb;101(2):442–446. doi: 10.1378/chest.101.2.442. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Chan R., Hemeryck L., O'Regan M., Clancy L., Feely J. Oral versus intravenous antibiotics for community acquired lower respiratory tract infection in a general hospital: open, randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 1995 May 27;310(6991):1360–1362. doi: 10.1136/bmj.310.6991.1360. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Chen D. K., McGeer A., de Azavedo J. C., Low D. E. Decreased susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada. Canadian Bacterial Surveillance Network. N Engl J Med. 1999 Jul 22;341(4):233–239. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199907223410403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Chien S. M., Pichotta P., Siepman N., Chan C. K. Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. A multicenter, double-blind, randomized study comparing clarithromycin with erythromycin. Canada-Sweden Clarithromycin-Pneumonia Study Group. Chest. 1993 Mar;103(3):697–701. doi: 10.1378/chest.103.3.697. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Confalonieri M., Potena A., Carbone G., Porta R. D., Tolley E. A., Umberto Meduri G. Acute respiratory failure in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia. A prospective randomized evaluation of noninvasive ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Nov;160(5 Pt 1):1585–1591. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.5.9903015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Connolly A. M., Salmon R. L., Lervy B., Williams D. H. What are the complications of influenza and can they be prevented? Experience from the 1989 epidemic of H3N2 influenza A in general practice. BMJ. 1993 May 29;306(6890):1452–1454. doi: 10.1136/bmj.306.6890.1452. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Conte H. A., Chen Y. T., Mehal W., Scinto J. D., Quagliarello V. J. A prognostic rule for elderly patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 1999 Jan;106(1):20–28. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343(98)00369-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Craig W. A. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis. 1998 Jan;26(1):1–12. doi: 10.1086/516284. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Croce M. A., Fabian T. C., Waddle-Smith L., Melton S. M., Minard G., Kudsk K. A., Pritchard F. E. Utility of Gram's stain and efficacy of quantitative cultures for posttraumatic pneumonia: a prospective study. Ann Surg. 1998 May;227(5):743–755. doi: 10.1097/00000658-199805000-00015. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Davidson M., Bulkow L. R., Grabman J., Parkinson A. J., Chamblee C., Williams W. W., Lanier A. P., Schiffman G. Immunogenicity of pneumococcal revaccination in patients with chronic disease. Arch Intern Med. 1994 Oct 10;154(19):2209–2214. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. De Palma M., Rocchi D., Canepa G., Peri A., Cantone V. Single daily dose of cefodizime in patients with community-acquired pneumonia: an open-label, controlled, randomized study. The Italian Multicentre Community-Acquired Pneumonia Group. Clin Ther. 1995 May-Jun;17(3):413–424. doi: 10.1016/0149-2918(95)80106-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Diehr P., Wood R. W., Bushyhead J., Krueger L., Wolcott B., Tompkins R. K. Prediction of pneumonia in outpatients with acute cough--a statistical approach. J Chronic Dis. 1984;37(3):215–225. doi: 10.1016/0021-9681(84)90149-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Donowitz G. R., Brandon M. L., Salisbury J. P., Harman C. P., Tipping D. M., Urick A. E., Talbot G. H. Sparfloxacin versus cefaclor in the treatment of patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized, double-masked, comparative, multicenter study. Clin Ther. 1997 Sep-Oct;19(5):936–953. doi: 10.1016/s0149-2918(97)80047-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Drehobl M., Bianchi P., Keyserling C. H., Tack K. J., Griffin T. J. Comparison of cefdinir and cefaclor in treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997 Jul;41(7):1579–1583. doi: 10.1128/aac.41.7.1579. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Drinka P. J., Gauerke C., Voeks S., Miller J., Schultz S., Krause P., Golubjatnikov R. Pneumonia in a nursing home. J Gen Intern Med. 1994 Nov;9(11):650–652. doi: 10.1007/BF02600312. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Drusano G. L., Craig W. A. Relevance of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in the selection of antibiotics for respiratory tract infections. J Chemother. 1997 May;9 (Suppl 3):38–44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Eccles M., Clapp Z., Grimshaw J., Adams P. C., Higgins B., Purves I., Russell I. North of England evidence based guidelines development project: methods of guideline development. BMJ. 1996 Mar 23;312(7033):760–762. doi: 10.1136/bmj.312.7033.760. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Edelstein P. H. Antimicrobial chemotherapy for Legionnaires disease: time for a change. Ann Intern Med. 1998 Aug 15;129(4):328–330. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-129-4-199808150-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Einarsson S., Kristjansson M., Kristinsson K. G., Kjartansson G., Jonsson S. Pneumonia caused by penicillin-non-susceptible and penicillin-susceptible pneumococci in adults: a case-control study. Scand J Infect Dis. 1998;30(3):253–256. doi: 10.1080/00365549850160882. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Ewig S., Bauer T., Hasper E., Marklein G., Kubini R., Lüderitz B. Value of routine microbial investigation in community-acquired pneumonia treated in a tertiary care center. Respiration. 1996;63(3):164–169. doi: 10.1159/000196538. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Ewig S., Bauer T., Hasper E., Pizzulli L., Kubini R., Lüderitz B. Prognostic analysis and predictive rule for outcome of hospital-treated community-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 1995 Mar;8(3):392–397. doi: 10.1183/09031936.95.08030392. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Ewig S., Kleinfeld T., Bauer T., Seifert K., Schäfer H., Göke N. Comparative validation of prognostic rules for community-acquired pneumonia in an elderly population. Eur Respir J. 1999 Aug;14(2):370–375. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.1999.14b22.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Ewig S., Ruiz M., Mensa J., Marcos M. A., Martinez J. A., Arancibia F., Niederman M. S., Torres A. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Assessment of severity criteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 Oct;158(4):1102–1108. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.158.4.9803114. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Falcó V., Fernández de Sevilla T., Alegre J., Ferrer A., Martínez Vázquez J. M. Legionella pneumophila. A cause of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1991 Oct;100(4):1007–1011. doi: 10.1378/chest.100.4.1007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Fang G. D., Fine M., Orloff J., Arisumi D., Yu V. L., Kapoor W., Grayston J. T., Wang S. P., Kohler R., Muder R. R. New and emerging etiologies for community-acquired pneumonia with implications for therapy. A prospective multicenter study of 359 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 1990 Sep;69(5):307–316. doi: 10.1097/00005792-199009000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Farr B. M., Kaiser D. L., Harrison B. D., Connolly C. K. Prediction of microbial aetiology at admission to hospital for pneumonia from the presenting clinical features. British Thoracic Society Pneumonia Research Subcommittee. Thorax. 1989 Dec;44(12):1031–1035. doi: 10.1136/thx.44.12.1031. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Farr B. M., Sloman A. J., Fisch M. J. Predicting death in patients hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med. 1991 Sep 15;115(6):428–436. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-115-6-428. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Farr B. M., Woodhead M. A., Macfarlane J. T., Bartlett C. L., McCraken J. S., Wadsworth J., Miller D. L. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia diagnosed by general practitioners in the community. Respir Med. 2000 May;94(5):422–427. doi: 10.1053/rmed.1999.0743. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Farrington M., Rubenstein D. Antigen detection in pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect. 1991 Sep;23(2):109–116. doi: 10.1016/0163-4453(91)91900-i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Fedson D. S., Wajda A., Nicol J. P., Hammond G. W., Kaiser D. L., Roos L. L. Clinical effectiveness of influenza vaccination in Manitoba. JAMA. 1993 Oct 27;270(16):1956–1961. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Feldman C., Kallenbach J. M., Levy H., Reinach S. G., Hurwitz M. D., Thorburn J. R., Koornhof H. J. Community-acquired pneumonia of diverse aetiology: prognostic features in patients admitted to an intensive care unit and a "severity of illness" core. Intensive Care Med. 1989;15(5):302–307. doi: 10.1007/BF00263865. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Feldman C., Kallenbach J. M., Levy H., Thorburn J. R., Hurwitz M. D., Koornhof H. J. Comparison of bacteraemic community-acquired lobar pneumonia due to Streptococcus pneumoniae and Klebsiella pneumoniae in an intensive care unit. Respiration. 1991;58(5-6):265–270. doi: 10.1159/000195943. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Feldman C., Ross S., Mahomed A. G., Omar J., Smith C. The aetiology of severe community-acquired pneumonia and its impact on initial, empiric, antimicrobial chemotherapy. Respir Med. 1995 Mar;89(3):187–192. doi: 10.1016/0954-6111(95)90246-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Felmingham D., Washington J. Trends in the antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial respiratory tract pathogens--findings of the Alexander Project 1992-1996. J Chemother. 1999 Feb;11 (Suppl 1):5–21. doi: 10.1179/joc.1999.11.Supplement-2.5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. File T. M., Jr, Plouffe J. F., Jr, Breiman R. F., Skelton S. K. Clinical characteristics of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection as the sole cause of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Aug;29(2):426–428. doi: 10.1086/520227. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. File T. M., Jr, Segreti J., Dunbar L., Player R., Kohler R., Williams R. R., Kojak C., Rubin A. A multicenter, randomized study comparing the efficacy and safety of intravenous and/or oral levofloxacin versus ceftriaxone and/or cefuroxime axetil in treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997 Sep;41(9):1965–1972. doi: 10.1128/aac.41.9.1965. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Finch R. G., Woodhead M. A. Practical considerations and guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia. Drugs. 1998 Jan;55(1):31–45. doi: 10.2165/00003495-199855010-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Fine M. J., Auble T. E., Yealy D. M., Hanusa B. H., Weissfeld L. A., Singer D. E., Coley C. M., Marrie T. J., Kapoor W. N. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997 Jan 23;336(4):243–250. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199701233360402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Fine M. J., Hanusa B. H., Lave J. R., Singer D. E., Stone R. A., Weissfeld L. A., Coley C. M., Marrie T. J., Kapoor W. N. Comparison of a disease-specific and a generic severity of illness measure for patients with community-acquired pneumonia. J Gen Intern Med. 1995 Jul;10(7):359–368. doi: 10.1007/BF02599830. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Fine M. J., Orloff J. J., Rihs J. D., Vickers R. M., Kominos S., Kapoor W. N., Arena V. C., Yu V. L. Evaluation of housestaff physicians' preparation and interpretation of sputum Gram stains for community-acquired pneumonia. J Gen Intern Med. 1991 May-Jun;6(3):189–198. doi: 10.1007/BF02598958. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Fine M. J., Singer D. E., Hanusa B. H., Lave J. R., Kapoor W. N. Validation of a pneumonia prognostic index using the MedisGroups Comparative Hospital Database. Am J Med. 1993 Feb;94(2):153–159. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(93)90177-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Fine M. J., Smith M. A., Carson C. A., Meffe F., Sankey S. S., Weissfeld L. A., Detsky A. S., Kapoor W. N. Efficacy of pneumococcal vaccination in adults. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 1994 Dec 12;154(23):2666–2677. doi: 10.1001/archinte.1994.00420230051007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Fine M. J., Smith M. A., Carson C. A., Mutha S. S., Sankey S. S., Weissfeld L. A., Kapoor W. N. Prognosis and outcomes of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. A meta-analysis. JAMA. 1996 Jan 10;275(2):134–141. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Foster D. A., Talsma A., Furumoto-Dawson A., Ohmit S. E., Margulies J. R., Arden N. H., Monto A. S. Influenza vaccine effectiveness in preventing hospitalization for pneumonia in the elderly. Am J Epidemiol. 1992 Aug 1;136(3):296–307. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116495. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Foy H. M., Cooney M. K., Allan I., Kenny G. E. Rates of pneumonia during influenza epidemics in Seattle, 1964 to 1975. JAMA. 1979 Jan 19;241(3):253–258. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Foy H. M., Cooney M. K., McMahan R., Grayston J. T. Viral and mycoplasmal pneumonia in a prepaid medical care group during an eight-year period. Am J Epidemiol. 1973 Feb;97(2):93–102. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a121493. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Fredlund H., Bodin L., Bäck E., Holmberg H., Krook A., Rydman H. Antibiotic therapy in pneumonia: a comparative study of parenteral and oral administration of penicillin. Scand J Infect Dis. 1987;19(4):459–466. doi: 10.3109/00365548709021679. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Fulmer J. D., Snider G. L. American College of Chest Physicians/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute National Conference on Oxygen Therapy. Heart Lung. 1984 Sep;13(5):550–562. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Gaillat J., Bru J. P., Sedallian A. Penicillin G/ofloxacin versus erythromycin/amoxicillin-clavulanate in the treatment of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994 Aug;13(8):639–644. doi: 10.1007/BF01973989. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Garau J., Aguilar L., Rodríguez-Créixems M., Dal-ré R., Pérez-Trallero E., Rodríguez M., Bouza E. Influence of comorbidity and severity on the clinical outcome of bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia treated with beta-lactam monotherapy. J Chemother. 1999 Aug;11(4):266–272. doi: 10.1179/joc.1999.11.4.266. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Garb J. L., Brown R. B., Garb J. R., Tuthill R. W. Differences in etiology of pneumonias in nursing home and community patients. JAMA. 1978 Nov 10;240(20):2169–2172. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. García E., Arrecubieta C., Muñoz R., Mollerach M., López R. A functional analysis of the Streptococcus pneumoniae genes involved in the synthesis of type 1 and type 3 capsular polysaccharides. Microb Drug Resist. 1997 Spring;3(1):73–88. doi: 10.1089/mdr.1997.3.73. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Garnett P., Brogan O., Lafong C., Fox C. Comparison of throat swabs with sputum specimens for the detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae antigen by direct immunofluorescence. J Clin Pathol. 1998 Apr;51(4):309–311. doi: 10.1136/jcp.51.4.309. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Geckler R. W., McCormack G. D., Goodman J. S. Comparison of cefonicid and cefamandole for the treatment of community-acquired infections of the lower respiratory tract. Rev Infect Dis. 1984 Nov-Dec;6 (Suppl 4):S847–S852. doi: 10.1093/clinids/6.supplement_4.s847. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Genné D., Siegrist H. H., Humair L., Janin-Jaquat B., de Torrenté A. Clarithromycin versus amoxicillin-clavulanic acid in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1997 Nov;16(11):783–788. doi: 10.1007/BF01700406. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Gibson S. P., Weir D. C., Burge P. S. A prospective audit of the value of fibre optic bronchoscopy in adults admitted with community acquired pneumonia. Respir Med. 1993 Feb;87(2):105–109. doi: 10.1016/0954-6111(93)90136-n. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Gikas A., Kofteridis D., Bouros D., Voloudaki A., Tselentis Y., Tsaparas N. Q fever pneumonia: appearance on chest radiographs. Radiology. 1999 Feb;210(2):339–343. doi: 10.1148/radiology.210.2.r99fe20339. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Gilbert K., Gleason P. P., Singer D. E., Marrie T. J., Coley C. M., Obrosky D. S., Lave J. R., Kapoor W. N., Fine M. J. Variations in antimicrobial use and cost in more than 2,000 patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med. 1998 Jan;104(1):17–27. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343(97)00274-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Gleason P. P., Kapoor W. N., Stone R. A., Lave J. R., Obrosky D. S., Schulz R., Singer D. E., Coley C. M., Marrie T. J., Fine M. J. Medical outcomes and antimicrobial costs with the use of the American Thoracic Society guidelines for outpatients with community-acquired pneumonia. JAMA. 1997 Jul 2;278(1):32–39. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Goolam Mahomed A., Feldman C., Smith C., Promnitz D. A., Kaka S. Does primary Streptococcus viridans pneumonia exist? S Afr Med J. 1992 Dec;82(6):432–434. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Govaert T. M., Dinant G. J., Aretz K., Masurel N., Sprenger M. J., Knottnerus J. A. Adverse reactions to influenza vaccine in elderly people: randomised double blind placebo controlled trial. BMJ. 1993 Oct 16;307(6910):988–990. doi: 10.1136/bmj.307.6910.988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Govaert T. M., Thijs C. T., Masurel N., Sprenger M. J., Dinant G. J., Knottnerus J. A. The efficacy of influenza vaccination in elderly individuals. A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. JAMA. 1994 Dec 7;272(21):1661–1665. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Granados A., Podzamczer D., Gudiol F., Manresa F. Pneumonia due to Legionella pneumophila and pneumococcal pneumonia: similarities and differences on presentation. Eur Respir J. 1989 Feb;2(2):130–134. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Granet K. M., Wallach S. L., Horvath K., Jaeger J. Chest radiographs in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N J Med. 1996 Jun;93(6):37–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Grieco M. M., Lange M., Daniels J. A., Den M., Amaram N., Kornfeld H. Single-blind controlled study of ceftizoxime and cefamandole in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1982 Nov;10 (Suppl 100):223–225. doi: 10.1093/jac/10.suppl_c.223. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Gross P. A., Hermogenes A. W., Sacks H. S., Lau J., Levandowski R. A. The efficacy of influenza vaccine in elderly persons. A meta-analysis and review of the literature. Ann Intern Med. 1995 Oct 1;123(7):518–527. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-123-7-199510010-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Grossman R. F., Campbell D. A., Landis S. J., Garber G. E., Murray G., Stiver H. G., Saginur R., McIvor R. A., Laforge J., Rotstein C. Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly: the role of cefepime, a fourth-generation cephalosporin. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999 Apr;43(4):549–554. doi: 10.1093/jac/43.4.549. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Guest J. F., Morris A. Community-acquired pneumonia: the annual cost to the National Health Service in the UK. Eur Respir J. 1997 Jul;10(7):1530–1534. doi: 10.1183/09031936.97.10071530. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Guyatt G. H., Sackett D. L., Sinclair J. C., Hayward R., Cook D. J., Cook R. J. Users' guides to the medical literature. IX. A method for grading health care recommendations. Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. JAMA. 1995 Dec 13;274(22):1800–1804. doi: 10.1001/jama.274.22.1800. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Gómez J., Baños V., Ruiz Gómez J., Soto M. C., Muñoz L., Nuñez M. L., Canteras M., Valdés M. Prospective study of epidemiology and prognostic factors in community-acquired pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1996 Jul;15(7):556–560. doi: 10.1007/BF01709363. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Hansson L. O., Hedlund J. U., Ortqvist A. B. Sequential changes of inflammatory and nutritional markers in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1997 Apr;57(2):111–118. doi: 10.1080/00365519709056378. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Hart C. A. Antibiotic resistance: an increasing problem?. It always has been, but there are things we can do. BMJ. 1998 Apr 25;316(7140):1255–1256. doi: 10.1136/bmj.316.7140.1255. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Hasley P. B., Albaum M. N., Li Y. H., Fuhrman C. R., Britton C. A., Marrie T. J., Singer D. E., Coley C. M., Kapoor W. N., Fine M. J. Do pulmonary radiographic findings at presentation predict mortality in patients with community-acquired pneumonia? Arch Intern Med. 1996 Oct 28;156(19):2206–2212. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Hedlund J. U., Kalin M. E., Ortqvist A. B., Henrichsen J. Antibody response to pneumococcal vaccine in middle-aged and elderly patients recently treated for pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 1994 Sep 12;154(17):1961–1965. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Hedlund J., Kalin M., Ortqvist A. Recurrence of pneumonia in middle-aged and elderly adults after hospital-treated pneumonia: aetiology and predisposing conditions. Scand J Infect Dis. 1997;29(4):387–392. doi: 10.3109/00365549709011836. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Heffelfinger J. D., Dowell S. F., Jorgensen J. H., Klugman K. P., Mabry L. R., Musher D. M., Plouffe J. F., Rakowsky A., Schuchat A., Whitney C. G. Management of community-acquired pneumonia in the era of pneumococcal resistance: a report from the Drug-Resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Therapeutic Working Group. Arch Intern Med. 2000 May 22;160(10):1399–1408. doi: 10.1001/archinte.160.10.1399. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Heffner J. E., Brown L. K., Barbieri C., DeLeo J. M. Pleural fluid chemical analysis in parapneumonic effusions. A meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Jun;151(6):1700–1708. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.151.6.7767510. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Heffner J. E., McDonald J., Barbieri C., Klein J. Management of parapneumonic effusions. An analysis of physician practice patterns. Arch Surg. 1995 Apr;130(4):433–438. doi: 10.1001/archsurg.1995.01430040095021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Helms C. M., Viner J. P., Sturm R. H., Renner E. D., Johnson W. Comparative features of pneumococcal, mycoplasmal, and Legionnaires' disease pneumonias. Ann Intern Med. 1979 Apr;90(4):543–547. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-90-4-543. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Helms C. M., Wintermeyer L. A., Zeitler R. R., Larew R. E., Massanari R. M., Hall N. H., Hausler W. J., Jr, Johnson W. An outbreak of community-acquired Legionnaires' disease pneumonia. Am J Public Health. 1984 Aug;74(8):835–836. doi: 10.2105/ajph.74.8.835. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Henderson A., Wall D. Streptococcus milleri liver abscess presenting as fulminant pneumonia. Aust N Z J Surg. 1993 Mar;63(3):237–240. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-2197.1993.tb00528.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Hernández J. M., Sides G. D., Conforti P. M., Smietana M. G. Clinical efficacy of dirithromycin in patients with bacteremic pneumonia. Clin Ther. 1996 Nov-Dec;18(6):1128–1138. doi: 10.1016/s0149-2918(96)80067-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Higuera F., Hidalgo H., Feris J., Giguere G., Collins J. J. Comparison of oral cefuroxime axetil and oral amoxycillin/clavulanate in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1996 Mar;37(3):555–564. doi: 10.1093/jac/37.3.555. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Hirani N. A., Macfarlane J. T. Impact of management guidelines on the outcome of severe community acquired pneumonia. Thorax. 1997 Jan;52(1):17–21. doi: 10.1136/thx.52.1.17. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Ho A., Leung R., Lai C. K., Chan T. H., Chan C. H. Hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia in Hong Kong: a randomized study comparing imipenem/cilastatin and ceftazidime. Respiration. 1997;64(3):224–228. doi: 10.1159/000196675. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Hoge C. W., Reichler M. R., Dominguez E. A., Bremer J. C., Mastro T. D., Hendricks K. A., Musher D. M., Elliott J. A., Facklam R. R., Breiman R. F. An epidemic of pneumococcal disease in an overcrowded, inadequately ventilated jail. N Engl J Med. 1994 Sep 8;331(10):643–648. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199409083311004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Holmberg H. Aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospital treated patients. Scand J Infect Dis. 1987;19(5):491–501. doi: 10.3109/00365548709032413. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Holmberg H., Bodin L., Jönsson I., Krook A. Rapid aetiological diagnosis of pneumonia based on routine laboratory features. Scand J Infect Dis. 1990;22(5):537–545. doi: 10.3109/00365549009027093. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Holmberg H., Kragsbjerg P. Association of pneumonia and lung cancer: the value of convalescent chest radiography and follow-up. Scand J Infect Dis. 1993;25(1):93–100. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Hone R., Haugh C., O'Connor B., Hollingsworth J. Legionella: an infrequent cause of adult community acquired pneumonia in Dublin. Ir J Med Sci. 1989 Sep;158(9):230–232. doi: 10.1007/BF02943786. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Honeybourne D. Antibiotic penetration in the respiratory tract and implications for the selection of antimicrobial therapy. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1997 Mar;3(2):170–174. doi: 10.1097/00063198-199703000-00014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Honkanen P. O., Keistinen T., Kivelä S. L. Reactions following administration of influenza vaccine alone or with pneumococcal vaccine to the elderly. Arch Intern Med. 1996 Jan 22;156(2):205–208. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Hutchinson E. J., Joseph C. A., Zambon M., Fleming D. M., Watson J. M. Influenza surveillance in England and Wales: October 1995 to June 1996. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1996 Nov 8;6(12):R163–R169. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Impallomeni M., Galletly N. P., Wort S. J., Starr J. M., Rogers T. R. Increased risk of diarrhoea caused by Clostridium difficile in elderly patients receiving cefotaxime. BMJ. 1995 Nov 18;311(7016):1345–1346. doi: 10.1136/bmj.311.7016.1345. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Jackson M. A., Burry V. F., Olson L. C., Duthie S. E., Kearns G. L. Breakthrough sepsis in macrolide-resistant pneumococcal infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1996 Nov;15(11):1049–1051. doi: 10.1097/00006454-199611000-00026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Jaeschke R., Guyatt G., Sackett D. L. Users' guides to the medical literature. III. How to use an article about a diagnostic test. A. Are the results of the study valid? Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. JAMA. 1994 Feb 2;271(5):389–391. doi: 10.1001/jama.271.5.389. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Jalonen E., Paton J. C., Koskela M., Kerttula Y., Leinonen M. Measurement of antibody responses to pneumolysin--a promising method for the presumptive aetiological diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect. 1989 Sep;19(2):127–134. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(89)91864-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Jang T. N., Liu C. Y., Wang F. D., Yang S. P., Fung C. P. A randomized comparative study on the safety and efficacy of clarithromycin and erythromycin in treating community-acquired pneumonia. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi (Taipei) 1995 Apr;55(4):302–306. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Janssens J. P., Gauthey L., Herrmann F., Tkatch L., Michel J. P. Community-acquired pneumonia in older patients. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996 May;44(5):539–544. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1996.tb01439.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Jay S. J., Johanson W. G., Jr, Pierce A. K. The radiographic resolution of Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1975 Oct 16;293(16):798–801. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197510162931604. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Jeffrey A. A., Warren P. M., Flenley D. C. Acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease: risk factors and use of guidelines for management. Thorax. 1992 Jan;47(1):34–40. doi: 10.1136/thx.47.1.34. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Johnson A. P. Antibiotic resistance among clinically important gram-positive bacteria in the UK. J Hosp Infect. 1998 Sep;40(1):17–26. doi: 10.1016/s0195-6701(98)90020-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Jokinen C., Heiskanen L., Juvonen H., Kallinen S., Karkola K., Korppi M., Kurki S., Rönnberg P. R., Seppä A., Soimakallio S. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia in the population of four municipalities in eastern Finland. Am J Epidemiol. 1993 May 1;137(9):977–988. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116770. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Joseph C. A., Dedman D., Birtles R., Watson J. M., Bartlett C. L. Legionnaires' disease surveillance: England and Wales, 1993. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1994 Sep 16;4(10):R109–R111. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. Joseph C. A., Harrison T. G., Ilijic-Car D., Bartlett C. L. Legionnaires' disease in residents of England and Wales: 1996. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1997 Oct 17;7(11):R153–R159. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  149. Joseph C. A., Harrison T. G., Ilijic-Car D., Bartlett C. L. Legionnaires' disease in residents of England and Wales: 1998. Commun Dis Public Health. 1999 Dec;2(4):280–284. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Joseph C. A., Hutchinson E. J., Dedman D., Birtles R. J., Watson J. M., Bartlett C. L. Legionnaires' disease surveillance: England and Wales 1994. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1995 Nov 10;5(12):R180–R183. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. Karalus N. C., Cursons R. T., Leng R. A., Mahood C. B., Rothwell R. P., Hancock B., Cepulis S., Wawatai M., Coleman L. Community acquired pneumonia: aetiology and prognostic index evaluation. Thorax. 1991 Jun;46(6):413–418. doi: 10.1136/thx.46.6.413. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  152. Kauppinen M. T., Lähde S., Syrjälä H. Roentgenographic findings of pneumonia caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae. A comparison with streptococcus pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 1996 Sep 9;156(16):1851–1856. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  153. Kauppinen M. T., Saikku P., Kujala P., Herva E., Syrjälä H. Clinical picture of community-acquired Chlamydia pneumoniae pneumonia requiring hospital treatment: a comparison between chlamydial and pneumococcal pneumonia. Thorax. 1996 Feb;51(2):185–189. doi: 10.1136/thx.51.2.185. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Keeton G. R., Kehoe B., Phillips S. W., Daya H. Ceftazidime and cefamandole in the treatment of pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1983 Jul;12 (Suppl A):27–30. doi: 10.1093/jac/12.suppl_a.27. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  155. Kim P. E., Musher D. M., Glezen W. P., Rodriguez-Barradas M. C., Nahm W. K., Wright C. E. Association of invasive pneumococcal disease with season, atmospheric conditions, air pollution, and the isolation of respiratory viruses. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Jan;22(1):100–106. doi: 10.1093/clinids/22.1.100. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. Kinasewitz G., Wood R. G. Azithromycin versus cefaclor in the treatment of acute bacterial pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1991 Oct;10(10):872–877. doi: 10.1007/BF01975846. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  157. Kinnear W. J., Finch R. G., Pilkington R., Macfarlane J. T. Nosocomial lower respiratory tract infections in surgical wards. Thorax. 1990 Mar;45(3):187–189. doi: 10.1136/thx.45.3.187. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  158. Kissling M. Cefetamet pivoxil in community-acquired pneumonia: an overview. Curr Med Res Opin. 1992;12(10):631–639. doi: 10.1185/03007999209111530. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  159. Kleemola M., Saikku P., Visakorpi R., Wang S. P., Grayston J. T. Epidemics of pneumonia caused by TWAR, a new Chlamydia organism, in military trainees in Finland. J Infect Dis. 1988 Feb;157(2):230–236. doi: 10.1093/infdis/157.2.230. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  160. Korvick J. A., Hackett A. K., Yu V. L., Muder R. R. Klebsiella pneumonia in the modern era: clinicoradiographic correlations. South Med J. 1991 Feb;84(2):200–204. doi: 10.1097/00007611-199102000-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  161. Koulla-Shiro S., Kuaban C., Auckenthaler R., Belec L., Ngu J. L. Adult response to initial treatment with ampicillin in community acquired pneumonia in Yaoundé, Cameroon. Cent Afr J Med. 1993 Sep;39(9):188–192. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  162. Kutlin A., Tsumura N., Emre U., Roblin P. M., Hammerschlag M. R. Evaluation of Chlamydia immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgG, and IgA rELISAs Medac for diagnosis of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 1997 Mar;4(2):213–216. doi: 10.1128/cdli.4.2.213-216.1997. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  163. LaCroix A. Z., Lipson S., Miles T. P., White L. Prospective study of pneumonia hospitalizations and mortality of U.S. older people: the role of chronic conditions, health behaviors, and nutritional status. Public Health Rep. 1989 Jul-Aug;104(4):350–360. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  164. Lave J. R., Fine M. J., Sankey S. S., Hanusa B. H., Weissfeld L. A., Kapoor W. N. Hospitalized pneumonia. Outcomes, treatment patterns, and costs in urban and rural areas. J Gen Intern Med. 1996 Jul;11(7):415–421. doi: 10.1007/BF02600189. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  165. Lee K. H., Hui K. P., Tan W. C., Lim T. K. Severe community-acquired pneumonia in Singapore. Singapore Med J. 1996 Aug;37(4):374–377. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  166. Leroy O., Devos P., Guery B., Georges H., Vandenbussche C., Coffinier C., Thévenin D., Beaucaire G. Simplified prediction rule for prognosis of patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia in ICUs. Chest. 1999 Jul;116(1):157–165. doi: 10.1378/chest.116.1.157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  167. Leroy O., Georges H., Beuscart C., Guery B., Coffinier C., Vandenbussche C., Thevenin D., Beaucaire G. Severe community-acquired pneumonia in ICUs: prospective validation of a prognostic score. Intensive Care Med. 1996 Dec;22(12):1307–1314. doi: 10.1007/BF01709543. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  168. Leroy O., Guilley J., Georges H., Choisy P., Guery B., Alfandari S., Beaucaire G. Effect of hospital-acquired ventilator-associated pneumonia on mortality of severe community-acquired pneumonia. J Crit Care. 1999 Mar;14(1):12–19. doi: 10.1016/s0883-9441(99)90003-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  169. Leroy O., Santré C., Beuscart C., Georges H., Guery B., Jacquier J. M., Beaucaire G. A five-year study of severe community-acquired pneumonia with emphasis on prognosis in patients admitted to an intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med. 1995 Jan;21(1):24–31. doi: 10.1007/BF02425150. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  170. Leroy O., Vandenbussche C., Coffinier C., Bosquet C., Georges H., Guery B., Thevenin D., Beaucaire G. Community-acquired aspiration pneumonia in intensive care units. Epidemiological and prognosis data. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Dec;156(6):1922–1929. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.156.6.9702069. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  171. Lieberman D., Ben-Yaakov M., Lazarovich Z., Porath A., Schlaeffer F., Lieberman D., Leinonen M., Saikku P., Horovitz O., Boldur I. Chlamydia pneumoniae community-acquired pneumonia: a review of 62 hospitalized adult patients. Infection. 1996 Mar-Apr;24(2):109–114. doi: 10.1007/BF01713313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  172. Lieberman D., Lieberman D., Boldur I., Manor E., Hoffman S., Schlaeffer F., Porath A. Q-fever pneumonia in the Negev region of Israel: a review of 20 patients hospitalised over a period of one year. J Infect. 1995 Mar;30(2):135–140. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(95)80008-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  173. Lieberman D., Porath A., Schlaeffer F., Lieberman D., Boldur I. Legionella species community-acquired pneumonia. A review of 56 hospitalized adult patients. Chest. 1996 May;109(5):1243–1249. doi: 10.1378/chest.109.5.1243. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  174. Lieberman D., Schlaeffer F., Boldur I., Lieberman D., Horowitz S., Friedman M. G., Leiononen M., Horovitz O., Manor E., Porath A. Multiple pathogens in adult patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia: a one year prospective study of 346 consecutive patients. Thorax. 1996 Feb;51(2):179–184. doi: 10.1136/thx.51.2.179. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  175. Light R. W. A new classification of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Chest. 1995 Aug;108(2):299–301. doi: 10.1378/chest.108.2.299. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  176. Liippo K., Tala E., Puolijoki H., Brückner O. J., Rodrig J., Smits J. P. A comparative study of dirithromycin and erythromycin in bacterial pneumonia. J Infect. 1994 Mar;28(2):131–139. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(94)95540-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  177. Lim I., Shaw D. R., Stanley D. P., Lumb R., McLennan G. A prospective hospital study of the aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia. Med J Aust. 1989 Jul 17;151(2):87–91. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1989.tb101168.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  178. Lim W. S., Macfarlane J. T., Boswell T. C., Harrison T. G., Rose D., Leinonen M., Saikku P. Study of community acquired pneumonia aetiology (SCAPA) in adults admitted to hospital: implications for management guidelines. Thorax. 2001 Apr;56(4):296–301. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.4.296. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  179. Lode H., Garau J., Grassi C., Hosie J., Huchon G., Legakis N., Segev S., Wijnands G. Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized comparison of sparfloxacin, amoxycillin-clavulanic acid and erythromycin. Eur Respir J. 1995 Dec;8(12):1999–2007. doi: 10.1183/09031936.95.08121999. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  180. Logroscino C. D., Penza O., Locicero S., Losito G., Nardini S., Bertoli L., Cioffi R., Del Prato B. Community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a multicentric observational AIPO study. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 1999 Feb;54(1):11–17. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  181. Lorente M. L., Falguera M., Nogués A., González A. R., Merino M. T., Caballero M. R. Diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in whole blood: a prospective clinical study. Thorax. 2000 Feb;55(2):133–137. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.2.133. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  182. Ludlam H., Brown N., Sule O., Redpath C., Coni N., Owen G. An antibiotic policy associated with reduced risk of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. Age Ageing. 1999 Oct;28(6):578–580. doi: 10.1093/ageing/28.6.578. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  183. Léophonte P., Veyssier P. La lévofloxacine dans le traitement des pneumonies communautaires à pneumocoque. Presse Med. 1999 Nov 20;28(36):1975–1979. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  184. Lévy M., Dromer F., Brion N., Leturdu F., Carbon C. Community-acquired pneumonia. Importance of initial noninvasive bacteriologic and radiographic investigations. Chest. 1988 Jan;93(1):43–48. doi: 10.1378/chest.93.1.43. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  185. MacGowan A. P., Feeney R., Brown I., McCulloch S. Y., Reeves D. S., Lovering A. M. Health care resource utilization and antimicrobial use in elderly patients with community-acquired lower respiratory tract infection who develop Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997 Apr;39(4):537–541. doi: 10.1093/jac/39.4.537. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  186. MacGregor R. R., Graziani A. L. Oral administration of antibiotics: a rational alternative to the parenteral route. Clin Infect Dis. 1997 Mar;24(3):457–467. doi: 10.1093/clinids/24.3.457. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  187. Macfarlane J. T., Colville A., Guion A., Macfarlane R. M., Rose D. H. Prospective study of aetiology and outcome of adult lower-respiratory-tract infections in the community. Lancet. 1993 Feb 27;341(8844):511–514. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)90275-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  188. Macfarlane J. T., Finch R. G., Ward M. J., Macrae A. D. Hospital study of adult community-acquired pneumonia. Lancet. 1982 Jul 31;2(8292):255–258. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(82)90334-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  189. Macfarlane J. T., Miller A. C., Roderick Smith W. H., Morris A. H., Rose D. H. Comparative radiographic features of community acquired Legionnaires' disease, pneumococcal pneumonia, mycoplasma pneumonia, and psittacosis. Thorax. 1984 Jan;39(1):28–33. doi: 10.1136/thx.39.1.28. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  190. Macfarlane J. An overview of community acquired pneumonia with lessons learned from the British Thoracic Society Study. Semin Respir Infect. 1994 Sep;9(3):153–165. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  191. Macfarlane J., Lewis S. A., Macfarlane R., Holmes W. Contemporary use of antibiotics in 1089 adults presenting with acute lower respiratory tract illness in general practice in the U.K.: implications for developing management guidelines. Respir Med. 1997 Aug;91(7):427–434. doi: 10.1016/s0954-6111(97)90258-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  192. Macfarlane J. Lower respiratory tract infection and pneumonia in the community. Semin Respir Infect. 1999 Jun;14(2):151–162. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  193. Macfarlane J., Rose D. Radiographic features of staphylococcal pneumonia in adults and children. Thorax. 1996 May;51(5):539–540. doi: 10.1136/thx.51.5.539. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  194. Mandell L. A., Marrie T. J., Grossman R. F., Chow A. W., Hyland R. H. Canadian guidelines for the initial management of community-acquired pneumonia: an evidence-based update by the Canadian Infectious Diseases Society and the Canadian Thoracic Society. The Canadian Community-Acquired Pneumonia Working Group. Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Sep 7;31(2):383–421. doi: 10.1086/313959. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  195. Marik P., Kraus P., Sribante J., Havlik I., Lipman J., Johnson D. W. Hydrocortisone and tumor necrosis factor in severe community-acquired pneumonia. A randomized controlled study. Chest. 1993 Aug;104(2):389–392. doi: 10.1378/chest.104.2.389. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  196. Marras T. K., Chan C. K. Use of guidelines in treating community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1998 Jun;113(6):1689–1694. doi: 10.1378/chest.113.6.1689. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  197. Marrie T. J. Bacteraemic pneumococcal pneumonia: a continuously evolving disease. J Infect. 1992 May;24(3):247–255. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(05)80029-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  198. Marrie T. J., Blanchard W. A comparison of nursing home-acquired pneumonia patients with patients with community-acquired pneumonia and nursing home patients without pneumonia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1997 Jan;45(1):50–55. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1997.tb00977.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  199. Marrie T. J., Durant H., Kwan C. Nursing home-acquired pneumonia. A case-control study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1986 Oct;34(10):697–702. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1986.tb04300.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  200. Marrie T. J., Durant H., Yates L. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization: 5-year prospective study. Rev Infect Dis. 1989 Jul-Aug;11(4):586–599. doi: 10.1093/clinids/11.4.586. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  201. Marrie T. J. Epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly. Semin Respir Infect. 1990 Dec;5(4):260–268. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  202. Marrie T. J., Haldane E. V., Faulkner R. S., Durant H., Kwan C. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Is it different in the elderly? J Am Geriatr Soc. 1985 Oct;33(10):671–680. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1985.tb01775.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  203. Marrie T. J., Haldane E. V., Faulkner R. S., Kwan C., Grant B., Cook F. The importance of Coxiella burnetii as a cause of pneumonia in Nova Scotia. Can J Public Health. 1985 Jul-Aug;76(4):233–236. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  204. Marrie T. J., Lau C. Y., Wheeler S. L., Wong C. J., Vandervoort M. K., Feagan B. G. A controlled trial of a critical pathway for treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. CAPITAL Study Investigators. Community-Acquired Pneumonia Intervention Trial Assessing Levofloxacin. JAMA. 2000 Feb 9;283(6):749–755. doi: 10.1001/jama.283.6.749. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  205. Marrie T. J. Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia requiring hospitalization, with emphasis on infection in the elderly. Arch Intern Med. 1993 Feb 22;153(4):488–494. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  206. Marrie T. J., Peeling R. W., Fine M. J., Singer D. E., Coley C. M., Kapoor W. N. Ambulatory patients with community-acquired pneumonia: the frequency of atypical agents and clinical course. Am J Med. 1996 Nov;101(5):508–515. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343(96)00255-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  207. Marrie T. J. Pneumonia in the elderly. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1996 May;2(3):192–197. doi: 10.1097/00063198-199605000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  208. Marston B. J., Plouffe J. F., File T. M., Jr, Hackman B. A., Salstrom S. J., Lipman H. B., Kolczak M. S., Breiman R. F. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Results of a population-based active surveillance Study in Ohio. The Community-Based Pneumonia Incidence Study Group. Arch Intern Med. 1997 Aug 11;157(15):1709–1718. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  209. McNabb W. R., Shanson D. C., Williams T. D., Lant A. F. Adult community-acquired pneumonia in central London. J R Soc Med. 1984 Jul;77(7):550–555. doi: 10.1177/014107688407700705. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  210. McNulty C., Logan M., Donald I. P., Ennis D., Taylor D., Baldwin R. N., Bannerjee M., Cartwright K. A. Successful control of Clostridium difficile infection in an elderly care unit through use of a restrictive antibiotic policy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997 Nov;40(5):707–711. doi: 10.1093/jac/40.5.707. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  211. Meehan T. P., Fine M. J., Krumholz H. M., Scinto J. D., Galusha D. H., Mockalis J. T., Weber G. F., Petrillo M. K., Houck P. M., Fine J. M. Quality of care, process, and outcomes in elderly patients with pneumonia. JAMA. 1997 Dec 17;278(23):2080–2084. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  212. Melbye H., Berdal B. P., Straume B., Russell H., Vorland L., Thacker W. L. Pneumonia--a clinical or radiographic diagnosis? Etiology and clinical features of lower respiratory tract infection in adults in general practice. Scand J Infect Dis. 1992;24(5):647–655. doi: 10.3109/00365549209054652. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  213. Melbye H., Straume B., Aasebø U., Brox J. The diagnosis of adult pneumonia in general practice. The diagnostic value of history, physical examination and some blood tests. Scand J Prim Health Care. 1988 May;6(2):111–117. doi: 10.3109/02813438809009300. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  214. Menéndez R., Córdoba J., de La Cuadra P., Cremades M. J., López-Hontagas J. L., Salavert M., Gobernado M. Value of the polymerase chain reaction assay in noninvasive respiratory samples for diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Jun;159(6):1868–1873. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.6.9807070. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  215. Mercat A., Nguyen J., Dautzenberg B. An outbreak of pneumococcal pneumonia in two men's shelters. Chest. 1991 Jan;99(1):147–151. doi: 10.1378/chest.99.1.147. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  216. Metlay J. P., Kapoor W. N., Fine M. J. Does this patient have community-acquired pneumonia? Diagnosing pneumonia by history and physical examination. JAMA. 1997 Nov 5;278(17):1440–1445. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  217. Metlay J. P., Schulz R., Li Y. H., Singer D. E., Marrie T. J., Coley C. M., Hough L. J., Obrosky D. S., Kapoor W. N., Fine M. J. Influence of age on symptoms at presentation in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 1997 Jul 14;157(13):1453–1459. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  218. Meyer R. J., Town G. I., Harrè E., Koning M., Hurrell M., Beard M. E., Chambers S. T. An audit of the assessment and management of adults admitted to Christchurch Hospital with community acquired pneumonia. N Z Med J. 1997 Sep 26;110(1052):349–352. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  219. Michetti G., Pugliese C., Bamberga M., Ori Belometti M., Villa R., Maggi L., Ranzanici S., Perani V., Farina C., Moioli F. Community-acquired pneumonia: is there difference in etiology between hospitalized and out-patients? Minerva Med. 1995 Sep;86(9):341–351. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  220. Mier L., Dreyfuss D., Darchy B., Lanore J. J., Djedaïni K., Weber P., Brun P., Coste F. Is penicillin G an adequate initial treatment for aspiration pneumonia? A prospective evaluation using a protected specimen brush and quantitative cultures. Intensive Care Med. 1993;19(5):279–284. doi: 10.1007/BF01690548. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  221. Minogue M. F., Coley C. M., Fine M. J., Marrie T. J., Kapoor W. N., Singer D. E. Patients hospitalized after initial outpatient treatment for community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Emerg Med. 1998 Mar;31(3):376–380. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(98)70350-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  222. Mittl R. L., Jr, Schwab R. J., Duchin J. S., Goin J. E., Albeida S. M., Miller W. T. Radiographic resolution of community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Mar;149(3 Pt 1):630–635. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.149.3.8118630. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  223. Moine P., Vercken J. B., Chevret S., Chastang C., Gajdos P. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Etiology, epidemiology, and prognosis factors. French Study Group for Community-Acquired Pneumonia in the Intensive Care Unit. Chest. 1994 May;105(5):1487–1495. doi: 10.1378/chest.105.5.1487. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  224. Montejo Baranda M., Corral Carranceja J., Aguirre Errasti C. Q fever in the Basque Country: 1981-1984. Rev Infect Dis. 1985 Sep-Oct;7(5):700–701. doi: 10.1093/clinids/7.5.700. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  225. Moola S., Hagberg L., Churchyard G. A., Dylewski J. S., Sedani S., Staley H. A multicenter study of grepafloxacin and clarithromycin in the treatment of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1999 Oct;116(4):974–983. doi: 10.1378/chest.116.4.974. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  226. Morales J. O., Snead H. Efficacy and safety of intravenous cefotaxime for treating pneumonia in outpatients. Am J Med. 1994 Aug 15;97(2A):28–33. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(94)90285-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  227. Morandini G., Perduca M., Zannini G., Foschino M. P., Miragliotta G., Carnimeo N. S. Clinical efficacy of azithromycin in lower respiratory tract infections. J Chemother. 1993 Feb;5(1):32–36. doi: 10.1080/1120009x.1993.11739206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  228. Moreno S., García-Leoni M. E., Cercenado E., Diaz M. D., Bernaldo de Quirós J. C., Bouza E. Infections caused by erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: incidence, risk factors, and response to therapy in a prospective study. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 May;20(5):1195–1200. doi: 10.1093/clinids/20.5.1195. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  229. Moss P. J., Finch R. G. The next generation: fluoroquinolones in the management of acute lower respiratory infection in adults. Thorax. 2000 Jan;55(1):83–85. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.1.83. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  230. Mundy L. M., Auwaerter P. G., Oldach D., Warner M. L., Burton A., Vance E., Gaydos C. A., Joseph J. M., Gopalan R., Moore R. D. Community-acquired pneumonia: impact of immune status. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Oct;152(4 Pt 1):1309–1315. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.152.4.7551387. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  231. Nathwani D., Rubinstein E., Barlow G., Davey P. Do guidelines for community-acquired pneumonia improve the cost-effectiveness of hospital care? Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Feb 28;32(5):728–741. doi: 10.1086/319216. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  232. Neill A. M., Martin I. R., Weir R., Anderson R., Chereshsky A., Epton M. J., Jackson R., Schousboe M., Frampton C., Hutton S. Community acquired pneumonia: aetiology and usefulness of severity criteria on admission. Thorax. 1996 Oct;51(10):1010–1016. doi: 10.1136/thx.51.10.1010. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  233. Newton L. H., Joseph C. A., Hutchinson E. J., Harrison T. G., Watson J. M., Bartlett C. L. Legionnaires' disease surveillance: England and Wales, 1995. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1996 Oct 11;6(11):R151–R155. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  234. Nguyen-Van-Tam J. S., Nicholson K. G. Influenza immunization; vaccine offer, request and uptake in high-risk patients during the 1991/2 season. Epidemiol Infect. 1993 Oct;111(2):347–355. doi: 10.1017/s0950268800057058. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  235. Nguyen-van-Tam J. S., Nicholson K. G. Influenza deaths in Leicestershire during the 1989-90 epidemic: implications for prevention. Epidemiol Infect. 1992 Jun;108(3):537–545. doi: 10.1017/s0950268800050032. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  236. Nichol K. L., Baken L., Nelson A. Relation between influenza vaccination and outpatient visits, hospitalization, and mortality in elderly persons with chronic lung disease. Ann Intern Med. 1999 Mar 2;130(5):397–403. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-130-5-199903020-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  237. Nichol K. L., Baken L., Wuorenma J., Nelson A. The health and economic benefits associated with pneumococcal vaccination of elderly persons with chronic lung disease. Arch Intern Med. 1999 Nov 8;159(20):2437–2442. doi: 10.1001/archinte.159.20.2437. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  238. Nichol K. L. Complications of influenza and benefits of vaccination. Vaccine. 1999 Jul 30;17 (Suppl 1):S47–S52. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(99)00105-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  239. Nichol K. L., Margolis K. L., Wuorenma J., Von Sternberg T. The efficacy and cost effectiveness of vaccination against influenza among elderly persons living in the community. N Engl J Med. 1994 Sep 22;331(12):778–784. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199409223311206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  240. Niederman M. S., Bass J. B., Jr, Campbell G. D., Fein A. M., Grossman R. F., Mandell L. A., Marrie T. J., Sarosi G. A., Torres A., Yu V. L. Guidelines for the initial management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia: diagnosis, assessment of severity, and initial antimicrobial therapy. American Thoracic Society. Medical Section of the American Lung Association. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Nov;148(5):1418–1426. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/148.5.1418. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  241. Niederman M. S., McCombs J. S., Unger A. N., Kumar A., Popovian R. The cost of treating community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Ther. 1998 Jul-Aug;20(4):820–837. doi: 10.1016/s0149-2918(98)80144-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  242. Nielsen K., Bangsborg J. M., Høiby N. Susceptibility of Legionella species to five antibiotics and development of resistance by exposure to erythromycin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampicin. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2000 Jan;36(1):43–48. doi: 10.1016/s0732-8893(99)00095-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  243. Norrby S. R., Petermann W., Willcox P. A., Vetter N., Salewski E. A comparative study of levofloxacin and ceftriaxone in the treatment of hospitalized patients with pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis. 1998;30(4):397–404. doi: 10.1080/00365549850160710. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  244. O'Doherty B., Dutchman D. A., Pettit R., Maroli A. Randomized, double-blind, comparative study of grepafloxacin and amoxycillin in the treatment of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997 Dec;40 (Suppl A):73–81. doi: 10.1093/jac/40.suppl_1.73. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  245. O'Doherty B., Muller O. Randomized, multicentre study of the efficacy and tolerance of azithromycin versus clarithromycin in the treatment of adults with mild to moderate community-acquired pneumonia. Azithromycin Study Group. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998 Dec;17(12):828–833. doi: 10.1007/s100960050201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  246. Oh H. M., Ng A. W., Lee S. K. Cefuroxime compared to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Singapore Med J. 1996 Jun;37(3):255–257. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  247. Olaechea P. M., Quintana J. M., Gallardo M. S., Insausti J., Maraví E., Alvarez B. A predictive model for the treatment approach to community-acquired pneumonia in patients needing ICU admission. Intensive Care Med. 1996 Dec;22(12):1294–1300. doi: 10.1007/BF01709541. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  248. Ortqvist A., Hedlund J., Grillner L., Jalonen E., Kallings I., Leinonen M., Kalin M. Aetiology, outcome and prognostic factors in community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Eur Respir J. 1990 Nov;3(10):1105–1113. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  249. Ortqvist A., Hedlund J., Wretlind B., Carlström A., Kalin M. Diagnostic and prognostic value of interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein in community-acquired pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis. 1995;27(5):457–462. doi: 10.3109/00365549509047046. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  250. Ortqvist A., Sterner G., Nilsson J. A. Severe community-acquired pneumonia: factors influencing need of intensive care treatment and prognosis. Scand J Infect Dis. 1985;17(4):377–386. doi: 10.3109/13813458509058778. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  251. Ortqvist A., Valtonen M., Cars O., Wahl M., Saikku P., Jean C. Oral empiric treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. A multicenter, double-blind, randomized study comparing sparfloxacin with roxithromycin. The Scandinavian Sparfloxacin Study Group. Chest. 1996 Dec;110(6):1499–1506. doi: 10.1378/chest.110.6.1499. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  252. Ostergaard L., Andersen P. L. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia. Evaluation by transtracheal aspiration, blood culture, or serology. Chest. 1993 Nov;104(5):1400–1407. doi: 10.1378/chest.104.5.1400. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  253. Pachon J., Prados M. D., Capote F., Cuello J. A., Garnacho J., Verano A. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Etiology, prognosis, and treatment. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Aug;142(2):369–373. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/142.2.369. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  254. Palache A. M., Beyer W. E., Lüchters G., Völker R., Sprenger M. J., Masurel N. Influenza vaccines: the effect of vaccine dose on antibody response in primed populations during the ongoing interpandemic period. A review of the literature. Vaccine. 1993;11(9):892–908. doi: 10.1016/0264-410x(93)90375-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  255. Pallares R., Liñares J., Vadillo M., Cabellos C., Manresa F., Viladrich P. F., Martin R., Gudiol F. Resistance to penicillin and cephalosporin and mortality from severe pneumococcal pneumonia in Barcelona, Spain. N Engl J Med. 1995 Aug 24;333(8):474–480. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199508243330802. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  256. Pallares R., Viladrich P. F., Liñares J., Cabellos C., Gudiol F. Impact of antibiotic resistance on chemotherapy for pneumococcal infections. Microb Drug Resist. 1998 Winter;4(4):339–347. doi: 10.1089/mdr.1998.4.339. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  257. Pareja A., Bernal C., Leyva A., Piedrola G., Maroto M. C. Etiologic study of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1992 May;101(5):1207–1210. doi: 10.1378/chest.101.5.1207. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  258. Pebody R. G., Wall P. G., Ryan M. J., Fairley C. Epidemiological features of Coxiella burnetii infection in England and Wales: 1984 to 1994. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1996 Aug 16;6(9):R128–R132. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  259. Plemmons R. M., McAllister C. K., Garces M. C., Ward R. L. Osteomyelitis due to Mycobacterium haemophilum in a cardiac transplant patient: case report and analysis of interactions among clarithromycin, rifampin, and cyclosporine. Clin Infect Dis. 1997 May;24(5):995–997. doi: 10.1093/clinids/24.5.995. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  260. Plouffe J. F., Herbert M. T., File T. M., Jr, Baird I., Parsons J. N., Kahn J. B., Rielly-Gauvin K. T. Ofloxacin versus standard therapy in treatment of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Pneumonia Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1996 May;40(5):1175–1179. doi: 10.1128/aac.40.5.1175. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  261. Poirier R. Comparative study of clarithromycin and roxithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1991 Feb;27 (Suppl A):109–116. doi: 10.1093/jac/27.suppl_a.109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  262. Portier H., May T., Proust A. Comparative efficacy of sparfloxacin in comparison with amoxycillin plus ofloxacin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. French Study Group. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1996 May;37 (Suppl A):83–91. doi: 10.1093/jac/37.suppl_a.83. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  263. Potgieter P. D., Hammond J. M. Etiology and diagnosis of pneumonia requiring ICU admission. Chest. 1992 Jan;101(1):199–203. doi: 10.1378/chest.101.1.199. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  264. Powell M., Yeo S. F., Seymour A., Yuan M., Williams J. D., Fah Y. S. Antimicrobial resistance in Haemophilus influenzae from England and Scotland in 1991. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1992 May;29(5):547–554. doi: 10.1093/jac/29.5.547. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  265. Preston S. L., Drusano G. L., Berman A. L., Fowler C. L., Chow A. T., Dornseif B., Reichl V., Natarajan J., Corrado M. Pharmacodynamics of levofloxacin: a new paradigm for early clinical trials. JAMA. 1998 Jan 14;279(2):125–129. doi: 10.1001/jama.279.2.125. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  266. Preston S. L., Drusano G. L., Berman A. L., Fowler C. L., Chow A. T., Dornseif B., Reichl V., Natarajan J., Wong F. A., Corrado M. Levofloxacin population pharmacokinetics and creation of a demographic model for prediction of individual drug clearance in patients with serious community-acquired infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998 May;42(5):1098–1104. doi: 10.1128/aac.42.5.1098. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  267. Prout S., Potgieter P. D., Forder A. A., Moodie J. W., Matthews J. Acute community-acquired pneumonias. S Afr Med J. 1983 Sep 17;64(12):443–446. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  268. Pérez-Trallero E. Pneumococcal macrolide resistance-not a myth. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000 Mar;45(3):401–403. doi: 10.1093/jac/45.3.401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  269. Qureshi K. N., Hodkinson H. M. Evaluation of a ten-question mental test in the institutionalized elderly. Age Ageing. 1974 Aug;3(3):152–157. doi: 10.1093/ageing/3.3.152. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  270. Ragnar Norrby S. Atypical pneumonia in the Nordic countries: aetiology and clinical results of a trial comparing fleroxacin and doxycycline. Nordic Atypical Pneumonia Study Group. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997 Apr;39(4):499–508. doi: 10.1093/jac/39.4.499. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  271. Ramirez J. A. Switch therapy in community-acquired pneumonia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1995 May-Jun;22(1-2):219–223. doi: 10.1016/0732-8893(95)00088-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  272. Ramirez J., Unowsky J., Talbot G. H., Zhang H., Townsend L. Sparfloxacin versus clarithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Ther. 1999 Jan;21(1):103–117. doi: 10.1016/S0149-2918(00)88271-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  273. Reed W. W., Byrd G. S., Gates R. H., Jr, Howard R. S., Weaver M. J. Sputum gram's stain in community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia. A meta-analysis. West J Med. 1996 Oct;165(4):197–204. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  274. Rein M. F., Gwaltney J. M., Jr, O'Brien W. M., Jennings R. H., Mandell G. L. Accuracy of Gram's stain in identifying pneumococci in sputum. JAMA. 1978 Jun 23;239(25):2671–2673. doi: 10.1001/jama.239.25.2671. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  275. Reittner P., Müller N. L., Heyneman L., Johkoh T., Park J. S., Lee K. S., Honda O., Tomiyama N. Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia: radiographic and high-resolution CT features in 28 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000 Jan;174(1):37–41. doi: 10.2214/ajr.174.1.1740037. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  276. Rello J., Quintana E., Ausina V., Net A., Prats G. A three-year study of severe community-acquired pneumonia with emphasis on outcome. Chest. 1993 Jan;103(1):232–235. doi: 10.1378/chest.103.1.232. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  277. Rhew D. C., Hackner D., Henderson L., Ellrodt A. G., Weingarten S. R. The clinical benefit of in-hospital observation in 'low-risk' pneumonia patients after conversion from parenteral to oral antimicrobial therapy. Chest. 1998 Jan;113(1):142–146. doi: 10.1378/chest.113.1.142. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  278. Riley T. V. Clostridium difficile: a pathogen of the nineties. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998 Mar;17(3):137–141. doi: 10.1007/BF01691108. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  279. Riquelme R., Torres A., El-Ebiary M., de la Bellacasa J. P., Estruch R., Mensa J., Fernández-Solá J., Hernández C., Rodriguez-Roisin R. Community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly: A multivariate analysis of risk and prognostic factors. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Nov;154(5):1450–1455. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.154.5.8912763. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  280. Riquelme R., Torres A., el-Ebiary M., Mensa J., Estruch R., Ruiz M., Angrill J., Soler N. Community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly. Clinical and nutritional aspects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Dec;156(6):1908–1914. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.156.6.9702005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  281. Rizzato G., Montemurro L., Fraioli P., Montanari G., Fanti D., Pozzoli R., Magliano E. Efficacy of a three day course of azithromycin in moderately severe community-acquired pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 1995 Mar;8(3):398–402. doi: 10.1183/09031936.95.08030398. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  282. Rovira E., Martínez-Moragón E., Belda A., Gonzalvo F., Ripollés F., Pascual J. M. Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in outpatients: randomized study of clarithromycin alone versus clarithromycin and cefuroxime. Respiration. 1999;66(5):413–418. doi: 10.1159/000029424. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  283. Rubinstein E. Safety profile of sparfloxacin in the treatment of respiratory tract infections. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1996 May;37 (Suppl A):145–160. doi: 10.1093/jac/37.suppl_a.145. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  284. Rudin M. L., Michael J. R., Huxley E. J. Community-acquired acinetobacter pneumonia. Am J Med. 1979 Jul;67(1):39–43. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(79)90071-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  285. Ruf B., Schürmann D., Horbach I., Fehrenbach F. J., Pohle H. D. Incidence and clinical features of community-acquired legionellosis in hospitalized patients. Eur Respir J. 1989 Mar;2(3):257–262. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  286. Ruiz M., Ewig S., Marcos M. A., Martinez J. A., Arancibia F., Mensa J., Torres A. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: impact of age, comorbidity, and severity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Aug;160(2):397–405. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.2.9808045. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  287. Sackett D. L. Bias in analytic research. J Chronic Dis. 1979;32(1-2):51–63. doi: 10.1016/0021-9681(79)90012-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  288. Sackett D. L., Wennberg J. E. Choosing the best research design for each question. BMJ. 1997 Dec 20;315(7123):1636–1636. doi: 10.1136/bmj.315.7123.1636. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  289. Saikku P., Wang S. P., Kleemola M., Brander E., Rusanen E., Grayston J. T. An epidemic of mild pneumonia due to an unusual strain of Chlamydia psittaci. J Infect Dis. 1985 May;151(5):832–839. doi: 10.1093/infdis/151.5.832. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  290. Salvarezza C. R., Mingrone H., Fachinelli H., Kijanczuk S. Comparison of roxithromycin with cefixime in the treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998 Mar;41 (Suppl B):75–80. doi: 10.1093/jac/41.suppl_2.75. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  291. Sanyal S., Smith P. R., Saha A. C., Gupta S., Berkowitz L., Homel P. Initial microbiologic studies did not affect outcome in adults hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Jul;160(1):346–348. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.1.9806048. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  292. Schönwald S., Kuzman I., Oresković K., Burek V., Skerk V., Car V., Bozinović D., Culig J., Radosević S. Azithromycin: single 1.5 g dose in the treatment of patients with atypical pneumonia syndrome--a randomized study. Infection. 1999 May-Jun;27(3):198–202. doi: 10.1007/BF02561528. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  293. Schülin T., Wennersten C. B., Ferraro M. J., Moellering R. C., Jr, Eliopoulos G. M. Susceptibilities of Legionella spp. to newer antimicrobials in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998 Jun;42(6):1520–1523. doi: 10.1128/aac.42.6.1520. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  294. Settle C. D., Wilcox M. H., Fawley W. N., Corrado O. J., Hawkey P. M. Prospective study of the risk of Clostridium difficile diarrhoea in elderly patients following treatment with cefotaxime or piperacillin-tazobactam. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1998 Dec;12(12):1217–1223. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2036.1998.00428.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  295. Shelly M. A., Jacoby H., Riley G. J., Graves B. T., Pichichero M., Treanor J. J. Comparison of pneumococcal polysaccharide and CRM197-conjugated pneumococcal oligosaccharide vaccines in young and elderly adults. Infect Immun. 1997 Jan;65(1):242–247. doi: 10.1128/iai.65.1.242-247.1997. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  296. Sherer Y., Bakshi E., Rotman P., Levy Y., Shoenfeld Y. Comparative clinical study of cefonicid, chloramphenicol, and penicillin in community-acquired pneumonia. Int J Mol Med. 1998 Sep;2(3):343–348. doi: 10.3892/ijmm.2.3.343. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  297. Siegel R. E., Alicea M., Lee A., Blaiklock R. Comparison of 7 versus 10 days of antibiotic therapy for hospitalized patients with uncomplicated community-acquired pneumonia: a prospective, randomized, double-blind study. Am J Ther. 1999 Jul;6(4):217–222. doi: 10.1097/00045391-199907000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  298. Siegel R. E., Halpern N. A., Almenoff P. L., Lee A., Cashin R., Greene J. G. A prospective randomized study of inpatient iv. antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia. The optimal duration of therapy. Chest. 1996 Oct;110(4):965–971. doi: 10.1378/chest.110.4.965. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  299. Sillis M., White P., Caul E. O., Paul I. D., Treharne J. D. The differentiation of Chlamydia species by antigen detection in sputum specimens from patients with community-acquired acute respiratory infections. J Infect. 1992 Jul;25 (Suppl 1):77–86. doi: 10.1016/0163-4453(92)92130-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  300. Sillis M., Wreghitt T. G., Paul I. D., Caul E. O. Chlamydial respiratory infections. Don't get bogged down by differentiating species. BMJ. 1993 Jul 3;307(6895):62–63. doi: 10.1136/bmj.307.6895.62-b. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  301. Simpson J. C., Macfarlane J. T., Watson J., Woodhead M. A. A national confidential enquiry into community acquired pneumonia deaths in young adults in England and Wales. British Thoracic Society Research Committee and Public Health Laboratory Service. Thorax. 2000 Dec;55(12):1040–1045. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.12.1040. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  302. Smith R. P., Lipworth B. J., Cree I. A., Spiers E. M., Winter J. H. C-reactive protein. A clinical marker in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1995 Nov;108(5):1288–1291. doi: 10.1378/chest.108.5.1288. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  303. Sniadack D. H., Schwartz B., Lipman H., Bogaerts J., Butler J. C., Dagan R., Echaniz-Aviles G., Lloyd-Evans N., Fenoll A., Girgis N. I. Potential interventions for the prevention of childhood pneumonia: geographic and temporal differences in serotype and serogroup distribution of sterile site pneumococcal isolates from children--implications for vaccine strategies. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1995 Jun;14(6):503–510. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  304. Sobradillo V., Ansola P., Baranda F., Corral C. Q fever pneumonia: a review of 164 community-acquired cases in the Basque country. Eur Respir J. 1989 Mar;2(3):263–266. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  305. Socan M., Marinic-Fiser N., Kraigher A., Kotnik A., Logar M. Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalised patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999 Nov;18(11):777–782. doi: 10.1007/s100960050400. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  306. Sopena N., Sabrià-Leal M., Pedro-Botet M. L., Padilla E., Dominguez J., Morera J., Tudela P. Comparative study of the clinical presentation of Legionella pneumonia and other community-acquired pneumonias. Chest. 1998 May;113(5):1195–1200. doi: 10.1378/chest.113.5.1195. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  307. Speich R., Imhof E., Vogt M., Grossenbacher M., Zimmerli W. Efficacy, safety, and tolerance of piperacillin/tazobactam compared to co-amoxiclav plus an aminoglycoside in the treatment of severe pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998 May;17(5):313–317. doi: 10.1007/BF01709453. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  308. Spencer R. C. The role of antimicrobial agents in the aetiology of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998 May;41 (Suppl 100):21–27. doi: 10.1093/jac/41.suppl_3.21. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  309. Spiteri M. A., Cook D. G., Clarke S. W. Reliability of eliciting physical signs in examination of the chest. Lancet. 1988 Apr 16;1(8590):873–875. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(88)91613-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  310. Sportel J. H., Koëter G. H., van Altena R., Löwenberg A., Boersma W. G. Relation between beta-lactamase producing bacteria and patient characteristics in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Thorax. 1995 Mar;50(3):249–253. doi: 10.1136/thx.50.3.249. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  311. Starr J. M., Rogers T. R., Impallomeni M. Hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile diarrhoea and herd immunity. Lancet. 1997 Feb 8;349(9049):426–428. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)80053-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  312. Steinhoff D., Lode H., Ruckdeschel G., Heidrich B., Rolfs A., Fehrenbach F. J., Mauch H., Höffken G., Wagner J. Chlamydia pneumoniae as a cause of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized patients in Berlin. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Jun;22(6):958–964. doi: 10.1093/clinids/22.6.958. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  313. Stout J. E., Yu V. L. Legionellosis. N Engl J Med. 1997 Sep 4;337(10):682–687. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199709043371006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  314. Syrjälä H., Broas M., Suramo I., Ojala A., Lähde S. High-resolution computed tomography for the diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 1998 Aug;27(2):358–363. doi: 10.1086/514675. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  315. Sörensen J., Forsberg P., Håkanson E., Maller R., Sederholm C., Sörén L., Carlsson C. A new diagnostic approach to the patient with severe pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis. 1989;21(1):33–41. doi: 10.3109/00365548909035678. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  316. Tan Y. K., Khoo K. L., Chin S. P., Ong Y. Y. Aetiology and outcome of severe community-acquired pneumonia in Singapore. Eur Respir J. 1998 Jul;12(1):113–115. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.12010113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  317. Tanaka N., Matsumoto T., Kuramitsu T., Nakaki H., Ito K., Uchisako H., Miura G., Matsunaga N., Yamakawa K. High resolution CT findings in community-acquired pneumonia. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1996 Jul-Aug;20(4):600–608. doi: 10.1097/00004728-199607000-00019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  318. Tang C. M., Macfarlane J. T. Early management of younger adults dying of community acquired pneumonia. Respir Med. 1993 May;87(4):289–294. doi: 10.1016/0954-6111(93)90025-u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  319. Thompson J. E. Community acquired pneumonia in north eastern Australia--a hospital based study of aboriginal and non-aboriginal patients. Aust N Z J Med. 1997 Feb;27(1):59–61. doi: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.1997.tb00915.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  320. Torres A., Ausina V. Empirical treatment of nonsevere community-acquired pneumonia: still a difficult issue. Eur Respir J. 1995 Dec;8(12):1996–1998. doi: 10.1183/09031936.95.08121996. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  321. Torres A., Dorca J., Zalacaín R., Bello S., El-Ebiary M., Molinos L., Arévalo M., Blanquer J., Celis R., Iriberri M. Community-acquired pneumonia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a Spanish multicenter study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Nov;154(5):1456–1461. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.154.5.8912764. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  322. Torres A., Serra-Batlles J., Ferrer A., Jiménez P., Celis R., Cobo E., Rodriguez-Roisin R. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Epidemiology and prognostic factors. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991 Aug;144(2):312–318. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/144.2.312. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  323. Treanor J. J., Mattison H. R., Dumyati G., Yinnon A., Erb S., O'Brien D., Dolin R., Betts R. F. Protective efficacy of combined live intranasal and inactivated influenza A virus vaccines in the elderly. Ann Intern Med. 1992 Oct 15;117(8):625–633. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-117-8-625. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  324. Troy C. J., Peeling R. W., Ellis A. G., Hockin J. C., Bennett D. A., Murphy M. R., Spika J. S. Chlamydia pneumoniae as a new source of infectious outbreaks in nursing homes. JAMA. 1997 Apr 16;277(15):1214–1218. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  325. Trémolières F., de Kock F., Pluck N., Daniel R. Trovafloxacin versus high-dose amoxicillin (1 g three times daily) in the treatment of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998 Jun;17(6):447–453. doi: 10.1007/BF01691581. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  326. Tydeman D. E., Chandler A. R., Graveling B. M., Culot A., Harrison B. D. An investigation into the effects of exercise tolerance training on patients with chronic airways obstruction. Physiotherapy. 1984 Jul 10;70(7):261–264. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  327. Uzun O., Hayran M., Akova M., Gür D., Akalin H. E. Efficacy of a three-day course of azithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia. Preliminary report. J Chemother. 1994 Feb;6(1):53–57. doi: 10.1080/1120009x.1994.11741130. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  328. Van den Brande P., Vondra V., Vogel F., Schlaeffer F., Staley H., Holmes C. Sequential therapy with cefuroxime followed by cefuroxime axetil in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 1997 Aug;112(2):406–415. doi: 10.1378/chest.112.2.406. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  329. Venkatesan P., Gladman J., Macfarlane J. T., Barer D., Berman P., Kinnear W., Finch R. G. A hospital study of community acquired pneumonia in the elderly. Thorax. 1990 Apr;45(4):254–258. doi: 10.1136/thx.45.4.254. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  330. Venkatesan P., Macfarlane J. T. Role of pneumococcal antigen in the diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia. Thorax. 1992 May;47(5):329–331. doi: 10.1136/thx.47.5.329. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  331. Wallace R. J., Jr, Brown B. A., Griffith D. E., Girard W., Tanaka K. Reduced serum levels of clarithromycin in patients treated with multidrug regimens including rifampin or rifabutin for Mycobacterium avium-M. intracellulare infection. J Infect Dis. 1995 Mar;171(3):747–750. doi: 10.1093/infdis/171.3.747. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  332. Wallace R. J., Jr, Martin R. R., Quinones F. J., Greenberg S. B. Ceforanide and cefazolin therapy of pneumonia: comparative clinical trial. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1981 Nov;20(5):648–652. doi: 10.1128/aac.20.5.648. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  333. Wallace R. J., Jr, Niefield S. L., Waters S., Waters B., Awe R. J., Wiss K., Martin R. R., Greenberg S. B. Comparative trial of cefonicid and cefamandole in the therapy of community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1982 Feb;21(2):231–235. doi: 10.1128/aac.21.2.231. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  334. Weber D. J., Calderwood S. B., Karchmer A. W., Pennington J. E. Ampicillin versus cefamandole as initial therapy for community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987 Jun;31(6):876–882. doi: 10.1128/aac.31.6.876. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  335. White R. J., Blainey A. D., Harrison K. J., Clarke S. K. Causes of pneumonia presenting to a district general hospital. Thorax. 1981 Aug;36(8):566–570. doi: 10.1136/thx.36.8.566. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  336. Wiesner B., Wilen-Rosenqvist G., Lehtonen L. Twice daily dosing of erythromycin acistrate in the treatment of acute bronchitis and pneumonia. Arzneimittelforschung. 1993 Sep;43(9):1014–1017. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  337. Wilcox M. H. Respiratory antibiotic use and clostridium difficile infection: is it the drugs or is it the doctors? Thorax. 2000 Aug;55(8):633–634. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.8.633. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  338. Wilde J. A., McMillan J. A., Serwint J., Butta J., O'Riordan M. A., Steinhoff M. C. Effectiveness of influenza vaccine in health care professionals: a randomized trial. JAMA. 1999 Mar 10;281(10):908–913. doi: 10.1001/jama.281.10.908. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  339. Williams D., Perri M., Zervos M. J. Randomized comparative trial with ampicillin/sulbactam versus cefamandole in the therapy of community acquired pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994 Apr;13(4):293–298. doi: 10.1007/BF01974603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  340. Wise R., Honeybourne D. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones in the respiratory tract. Eur Respir J. 1999 Jul;14(1):221–229. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.1999.14a38.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  341. Woodhead M. A., Arrowsmith J., Chamberlain-Webber R., Wooding S., Williams I. The value of routine microbial investigation in community-acquired pneumonia. Respir Med. 1991 Jul;85(4):313–317. doi: 10.1016/s0954-6111(06)80103-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  342. Woodhead M. A., Macfarlane J. T., McCracken J. S., Rose D. H., Finch R. G. Prospective study of the aetiology and outcome of pneumonia in the community. Lancet. 1987 Mar 21;1(8534):671–674. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(87)90430-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  343. Woodhead M. A., Macfarlane J. T., Rodgers F. G., Laverick A., Pilkington R., Macrae A. D. Aetiology and outcome of severe community-acquired pneumonia. J Infect. 1985 May;10(3):204–210. doi: 10.1016/s0163-4453(85)92463-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  344. Woodhead M., Macfarlane J., BTS CAP Guidelines Committee Local antibiotic guidelines for adult community-acquired pneumonia (CAP): a survey of UK hospital practice in 1999. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000 Jul;46(1):141–143. doi: 10.1093/jac/46.1.141. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  345. Woodhead M. Management of pneumonia in the outpatient setting. Semin Respir Infect. 1998 Mar;13(1):8–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  346. Wreghitt T. Chlamydial infection of the respiratory tract. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev. 1993 Aug 13;3(9):R119–R124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  347. Zadik P. M., Moore A. P. Antimicrobial associations of an outbreak of diarrhoea due to Clostridium difficile. J Hosp Infect. 1998 Jul;39(3):189–193. doi: 10.1016/s0195-6701(98)90257-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  348. Zervos M., Nelson M. Cefepime versus ceftriaxone for empiric treatment of hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. The Cefepime Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998 Apr;42(4):729–733. doi: 10.1128/aac.42.4.729. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  349. Zuck P., Rio Y., Ichou F. Efficacy and tolerance of cefpodoxime proxetil compared with ceftriaxone in vulnerable patients with bronchopneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1990 Dec;26 (Suppl E):71–77. doi: 10.1093/jac/26.suppl_e.71. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  350. van Eeden S. F., Coetzee A. R., Joubert J. R. Community-acquired pneumonia--factors influencing intensive care admission. S Afr Med J. 1988 Jan 23;73(2):77–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Thorax are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES