Skip to main content
PMC home page
Infectious Diseases in Obstetrics and Gynecology logoLink to Infectious Diseases in Obstetrics and Gynecology
. 2002;10(1):3–64. doi: 10.1155/S1064744902000029

2001 USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus.

US Public Health Service, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Prevention of Opportunistic Infections Working Group
PMCID: PMC1784605  PMID: 12090361

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (601.4 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Aberg J. A., Yajko D. M., Jacobson M. A. Eradication of AIDS-related disseminated mycobacterium avium complex infection after 12 months of antimycobacterial therapy combined with highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 1998 Nov;178(5):1446–1449. doi: 10.1086/314469. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Adair C. D., Gunter M., Stovall T. G., McElroy G., Veille J. C., Ernest J. M. Chlamydia in pregnancy: a randomized trial of azithromycin and erythromycin. Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Feb;91(2):165–168. doi: 10.1016/s0029-7844(97)00586-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Aleck K. A., Bartley D. L. Multiple malformation syndrome following fluconazole use in pregnancy: report of an additional patient. Am J Med Genet. 1997 Oct 31;72(3):253–256. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Benson C. A., Williams P. L., Cohn D. L., Becker S., Hojczyk P., Nevin T., Korvick J. A., Heifets L., Child C. C., Lederman M. M. Clarithromycin or rifabutin alone or in combination for primary prophylaxis of Mycobacterium avium complex disease in patients with AIDS: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The AIDS Clinical Trials Group 196/Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS 009 Protocol Team. J Infect Dis. 2000 Apr 13;181(4):1289–1297. doi: 10.1086/315380. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bourboulia D., Whitby D., Boshoff C., Newton R., Beral V., Carrara H., Lane A., Sitas F. Serologic evidence for mother-to-child transmission of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus infection. JAMA. 1998 Jul 1;280(1):31–32. doi: 10.1001/jama.280.1.31-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bozzette S. A., Finkelstein D. M., Spector S. A., Frame P., Powderly W. G., He W., Phillips L., Craven D., van der Horst C., Feinberg J. A randomized trial of three antipneumocystis agents in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1995 Mar 16;332(11):693–699. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199503163321101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bozzette S. A., Larsen R. A., Chiu J., Leal M. A., Jacobsen J., Rothman P., Robinson P., Gilbert G., McCutchan J. A., Tilles J. A placebo-controlled trial of maintenance therapy with fluconazole after treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. 1991 Feb 28;324(9):580–584. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199102283240902. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Breiman R. F., Keller D. W., Phelan M. A., Sniadack D. H., Stephens D. S., Rimland D., Farley M. M., Schuchat A., Reingold A. L. Evaluation of effectiveness of the 23-valent pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine for HIV-infected patients. Arch Intern Med. 2000 Sep 25;160(17):2633–2638. doi: 10.1001/archinte.160.17.2633. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Brosgart C. L., Louis T. A., Hillman D. W., Craig C. P., Alston B., Fisher E., Abrams D. I., Luskin-Hawk R. L., Sampson J. H., Ward D. J. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the safety and efficacy of oral ganciclovir for prophylaxis of cytomegalovirus disease in HIV-infected individuals. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. AIDS. 1998 Feb 12;12(3):269–277. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199803000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Cannon M. J., Dollard S. C., Smith D. K., Klein R. S., Schuman P., Rich J. D., Vlahov D., Pellett P. E., HIV Epidemiology Research Study Group Blood-borne and sexual transmission of human herpesvirus 8 in women with or at risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 2001 Mar 1;344(9):637–643. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200103013440904. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Carr A., Tindall B., Brew B. J., Marriott D. J., Harkness J. L., Penny R., Cooper D. A. Low-dose trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1992 Jul 15;117(2):106–111. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-117-2-106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Chaisson R. E., Benson C. A., Dube M. P., Heifets L. B., Korvick J. A., Elkin S., Smith T., Craft J. C., Sattler F. R. Clarithromycin therapy for bacteremic Mycobacterium avium complex disease. A randomized, double-blind, dose-ranging study in patients with AIDS. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 157 Study Team. Ann Intern Med. 1994 Dec 15;121(12):905–911. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-121-12-199412150-00001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Chaisson R. E., Keiser P., Pierce M., Fessel W. J., Ruskin J., Lahart C., Benson C. A., Meek K., Siepman N., Craft J. C. Clarithromycin and ethambutol with or without clofazimine for the treatment of bacteremic Mycobacterium avium complex disease in patients with HIV infection. AIDS. 1997 Mar;11(3):311–317. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199703110-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Chan C., Montaner J., Lefebvre E. A., Morey G., Dohn M., McIvor R. A., Scott J., Marina R., Caldwell P. Atovaquone suspension compared with aerosolized pentamidine for prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects intolerant of trimethoprim or sulfonamides. J Infect Dis. 1999 Aug;180(2):369–376. doi: 10.1086/314893. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Chemello L., Cavalletto L., Casarin C., Bonetti P., Bernardinello E., Pontisso P., Donada C., Belussi F., Martinelli S., Alberti A. Persistent hepatitis C viremia predicts late relapse after sustained response to interferon-alpha in chronic hepatitis C. TriVeneto Viral Hepatitis Group. Ann Intern Med. 1996 Jun 15;124(12):1058–1060. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-124-12-199606150-00005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cohn D. L., Fisher E. J., Peng G. T., Hodges J. S., Chesnut J., Child C. C., Franchino B., Gibert C. L., El-Sadr W., Hafner R. A prospective randomized trial of four three-drug regimens in the treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease in AIDS patients: excess mortality associated with high-dose clarithromycin. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Jul;29(1):125–133. doi: 10.1086/520141. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Currier J. S., Williams P. L., Koletar S. L., Cohn S. E., Murphy R. L., Heald A. E., Hafner R., Bassily E. L., Lederman H. M., Knirsch C. Discontinuation of Mycobacterium avium complex prophylaxis in patients with antiretroviral therapy-induced increases in CD4+ cell count. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. AIDS Clinical Trials Group 362 Study Team. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Oct 3;133(7):493–503. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-133-7-200010030-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Dannemann B., McCutchan J. A., Israelski D., Antoniskis D., Leport C., Luft B., Nussbaum J., Clumeck N., Morlat P., Chiu J. Treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. A randomized trial comparing pyrimethamine plus clindamycin to pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine. The California Collaborative Treatment Group. Ann Intern Med. 1992 Jan 1;116(1):33–43. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-116-1-33. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Darby S. C., Ewart D. W., Giangrande P. L., Spooner R. J., Rizza C. R., Dusheiko G. M., Lee C. A., Ludlam C. A., Preston F. E. Mortality from liver cancer and liver disease in haemophilic men and boys in UK given blood products contaminated with hepatitis C. UK Haemophilia Centre Directors' Organisation. Lancet. 1997 Nov 15;350(9089):1425–1431. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(97)05413-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Darby S. C., Ewart D. W., Giangrande P. L., Spooner R. J., Rizza C. R., Dusheiko G. M., Lee C. A., Ludlam C. A., Preston F. E. Mortality from liver cancer and liver disease in haemophilic men and boys in UK given blood products contaminated with hepatitis C. UK Haemophilia Centre Directors' Organisation. Lancet. 1997 Nov 15;350(9089):1425–1431. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(97)05413-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Diaz-Llopis M., España E., Muñoz G., Navea A., Chipont E., Cano J., Menezo J. L., Romero F. J. High dose intravitreal foscarnet in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994 Feb;78(2):120–124. doi: 10.1136/bjo.78.2.120. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Drew W. L., Ives D., Lalezari J. P., Crumpacker C., Follansbee S. E., Spector S. A., Benson C. A., Friedberg D. N., Hubbard L., Stempien M. J. Oral ganciclovir as maintenance treatment for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Syntex Cooperative Oral Ganciclovir Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995 Sep 7;333(10):615–620. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199509073331002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Dworkin M. S., Hanson D. L., Kaplan J. E., Jones J. L., Ward J. W. Risk for preventable opportunistic infections in persons with AIDS after antiretroviral therapy increases CD4+ T lymphocyte counts above prophylaxis thresholds. J Infect Dis. 2000 Jul 14;182(2):611–615. doi: 10.1086/315734. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Dworkin M. S., Ward J. W., Hanson D. L., Jones J. L., Kaplan J. E., Adult and Adolescent Spectrum of HIV Disease Project Pneumococcal disease among human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons: incidence, risk factors, and impact of vaccination. Clin Infect Dis. 2001 Feb 28;32(5):794–800. doi: 10.1086/319218. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. El-Sadr W. M., Burman W. J., Grant L. B., Matts J. P., Hafner R., Crane L., Zeh D., Gallagher B., Mannheimer S. B., Martinez A. Discontinuation of prophylaxis for Mycobacterium avium complex disease in HIV-infected patients who have a response to antiretroviral therapy. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. N Engl J Med. 2000 Apr 13;342(15):1085–1092. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200004133421503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. El-Sadr W. M., Luskin-Hawk R., Yurik T. M., Walker J., Abrams D., John S. L., Sherer R., Crane L., Labriola A., Caras S. A randomized trial of daily and thrice-weekly trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for the prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA) Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Oct;29(4):775–783. doi: 10.1086/520433. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. El-Sadr W. M., Murphy R. L., Yurik T. M., Luskin-Hawk R., Cheung T. W., Balfour H. H., Jr, Eng R., Hooton T. M., Kerkering T. M., Schutz M. Atovaquone compared with dapsone for the prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV infection who cannot tolerate trimethoprim, sulfonamides, or both. Community Program for Clinical Research on AIDS and the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1998 Dec 24;339(26):1889–1895. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199812243392604. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Feinberg J. E., Hurwitz S., Cooper D., Sattler F. R., MacGregor R. R., Powderly W., Holland G. N., Griffiths P. D., Pollard R. B., Youle M. A randomized, double-blind trial of valaciclovir prophylaxis for cytomegalovirus disease in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 204/Glaxo Wellcome 123-014 International CMV Prophylaxis Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1998 Jan;177(1):48–56. doi: 10.1086/513804. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Fichtenbaum C. J., Zackin R., Feinberg J., Benson C., Griffiths J. K., AIDS Clinical Trials Group New Works Concept Sheet Team 064 Rifabutin but not clarithromycin prevents cryptosporidiosis in persons with advanced HIV infection. AIDS. 2000 Dec 22;14(18):2889–2893. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200012220-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. French N., Nakiyingi J., Carpenter L. M., Lugada E., Watera C., Moi K., Moore M., Antvelink D., Mulder D., Janoff E. N. 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults: double-blind, randomised and placebo controlled trial. Lancet. 2000 Jun 17;355(9221):2106–2111. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02377-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Furrer H., Egger M., Opravil M., Bernasconi E., Hirschel B., Battegay M., Telenti A., Vernazza P. L., Rickenbach M., Flepp M. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-1-infected adults treated with combination antiretroviral therapy. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. N Engl J Med. 1999 Apr 29;340(17):1301–1306. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199904293401701. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Furrer H., Opravil M., Bernasconi E., Telenti A., Egger M. Stopping primary prophylaxis in HIV-1-infected patients at high risk of toxoplasma encephalitis. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Lancet. 2000 Jun 24;355(9222):2217–2218. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02407-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Furrer H., Opravil M., Rossi M., Bernasconi E., Telenti A., Bucher H., Schiffer V., Boggian K., Rickenbach M., Flepp M. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis in HIV-infected patients at high risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: prospective multicentre study. AIDS. 2001 Mar 9;15(4):501–507. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200103090-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Furrer H., Telenti A., Rossi M., Ledergerber B. Discontinuing or withholding primary prophylaxis against Mycobacterium avium in patients on successful antiretroviral combination therapy. The Swiss HIV Cohort Study. AIDS. 2000 Jul 7;14(10):1409–1412. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200007070-00014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Galgiani J. N., Catanzaro A., Cloud G. A., Johnson R. H., Williams P. L., Mirels L. F., Nassar F., Lutz J. E., Stevens D. A., Sharkey P. K. Comparison of oral fluconazole and itraconazole for progressive, nonmeningeal coccidioidomycosis. A randomized, double-blind trial. Mycoses Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Nov 7;133(9):676–686. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-133-9-200011070-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Gebo K. A., Moore R. D., Keruly J. C., Chaisson R. E. Risk factors for pneumococcal disease in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Infect Dis. 1996 Apr;173(4):857–862. doi: 10.1093/infdis/173.4.857. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Goldie S. J., Kuntz K. M., Weinstein M. C., Freedberg K. A., Welton M. L., Palefsky J. M. The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of screening for anal squamous intraepithelial lesions in homosexual and bisexual HIV-positive men. JAMA. 1999 May 19;281(19):1822–1829. doi: 10.1001/jama.281.19.1822. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Gordin F. M., Sullam P. M., Shafran S. D., Cohn D. L., Wynne B., Paxton L., Perry K., Horsburgh C. R., Jr A randomized, placebo-controlled study of rifabutin added to a regimen of clarithromycin and ethambutol for treatment of disseminated infection with Mycobacterium avium complex. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 May;28(5):1080–1085. doi: 10.1086/514748. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Gross P. A., Barrett T. L., Dellinger E. P., Krause P. J., Martone W. J., McGowan J. E., Jr, Sweet R. L., Wenzel R. P. Purpose of quality standards for infectious diseases. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 1994 Mar;18(3):421–421. doi: 10.1093/clinids/18.3.421. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Guerrero M., Kruger S., Saitoh A., Sorvillo F., Cheng K. J., French C., Beall G. Pneumonia in HIV-infected patients: a case-control survey of factors involved in risk and prevention. AIDS. 1999 Oct 1;13(14):1971–1975. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199910010-00021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Hardy W. D., Feinberg J., Finkelstein D. M., Power M. E., He W., Kaczka C., Frame P. T., Holmes M., Waskin H., Fass R. J. A controlled trial of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or aerosolized pentamidine for secondary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 021. N Engl J Med. 1992 Dec 24;327(26):1842–1848. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199212243272604. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Havlir D. V., Dubé M. P., McCutchan J. A., Forthal D. N., Kemper C. A., Dunne M. W., Parenti D. M., Kumar P. N., White A. C., Jr, Witt M. D. Prophylaxis with weekly versus daily fluconazole for fungal infections in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1998 Dec;27(6):1369–1375. doi: 10.1086/515018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Havlir D. V., Dubé M. P., Sattler F. R., Forthal D. N., Kemper C. A., Dunne M. W., Parenti D. M., Lavelle J. P., White A. C., Jr, Witt M. D. Prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex with weekly azithromycin, daily rifabutin, or both. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. 1996 Aug 8;335(6):392–398. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199608083350604. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Holmberg S. D., Moorman A. C., Von Bargen J. C., Palella F. J., Loveless M. O., Ward D. J., Navin T. R. Possible effectiveness of clarithromycin and rifabutin for cryptosporidiosis chemoprophylaxis in HIV disease. HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) Investigators. JAMA. 1998 Feb 4;279(5):384–386. doi: 10.1001/jama.279.5.384. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Jabs D. A., Bolton S. G., Dunn J. P., Palestine A. G. Discontinuing anticytomegalovirus therapy in patients with immune reconstitution after combination antiretroviral therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998 Dec;126(6):817–822. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9394(98)00285-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Jacobson L. P., Jenkins F. J., Springer G., Muñoz A., Shah K. V., Phair J., Zhang Z., Armenian H. Interaction of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and human herpesvirus type 8 infections on the incidence of Kaposi's sarcoma. J Infect Dis. 2000 May 26;181(6):1940–1949. doi: 10.1086/315503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Jouan M., Savès M., Tubiana R., Carcelain G., Cassoux N., Aubron-Olivier C., Fillet A. M., Nciri M., Sénéchal B., Chêne G. Discontinuation of maintenance therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2001 Jan 5;15(1):23–31. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200101050-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Kaplan J. E., Hanson D. L., Navin T. R., Jones J. L. Risk factors for primary Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents and adults in the United States: reassessment of indications for chemoprophylaxis. J Infect Dis. 1998 Oct;178(4):1126–1132. doi: 10.1086/515658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Kaplan J. E., Masur H., Jaffe H. W., Holmes K. K. Preventing opportunistic infections in persons infected with HIV: 1997 guidelines. JAMA. 1997 Jul 23;278(4):337–338. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Kaplan J. E., Masur H., Jaffe H. W., Holmes K. K. Reducing the impact of opportunistic infections in patients with HIV infection. New guidelines. JAMA. 1995 Jul 26;274(4):347–348. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Katlama C., De Wit S., O'Doherty E., Van Glabeke M., Clumeck N. Pyrimethamine-clindamycin vs. pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine as acute and long-term therapy for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Feb;22(2):268–275. doi: 10.1093/clinids/22.2.268. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Kirk O., Lundgren J. D., Pedersen C., Nielsen H., Gerstoft J. Can chemoprophylaxis against opportunistic infections be discontinued after an increase in CD4 cells induced by highly active antiretroviral therapy? AIDS. 1999 Sep 10;13(13):1647–1651. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199909100-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Kirsch L. S., Arevalo J. F., Chavez de la Paz E., Munguia D., de Clercq E., Freeman W. R. Intravitreal cidofovir (HPMPC) treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1995 Apr;102(4):533–543. doi: 10.1016/s0161-6420(95)30985-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Koot M., van Leeuwen R., de Goede R. E., Keet I. P., Danner S., Eeftinck Schattenkerk J. K., Reiss P., Tersmette M., Lange J. M., Schuitemaker H. Conversion rate towards a syncytium-inducing (SI) phenotype during different stages of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and prognostic value of SI phenotype for survival after AIDS diagnosis. J Infect Dis. 1999 Jan;179(1):254–258. doi: 10.1086/314539. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Kurman R. J., Henson D. E., Herbst A. L., Noller K. L., Schiffman M. H. Interim guidelines for management of abnormal cervical cytology. The 1992 National Cancer Institute Workshop. JAMA. 1994 Jun 15;271(23):1866–1869. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Ledergerber B., Egger M., Erard V., Weber R., Hirschel B., Furrer H., Battegay M., Vernazza P., Bernasconi E., Opravil M. AIDS-related opportunistic illnesses occurring after initiation of potent antiretroviral therapy: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. JAMA. 1999 Dec 15;282(23):2220–2226. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.23.2220. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Ledergerber B., Mocroft A., Reiss P., Furrer H., Kirk O., Bickel M., Uberti-Foppa C., Pradier C., D'Arminio Monforte A., Schneider M. M. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV infection who have a response to antiretroviral therapy. Eight European Study Groups. N Engl J Med. 2001 Jan 18;344(3):168–174. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200101183440302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Lopez Bernaldo de Quiros J. C., Miro J. M., Peña J. M., Podzamczer D., Alberdi J. C., Martínez E., Cosin J., Claramonte X., Gonzalez J., Domingo P. A randomized trial of the discontinuation of primary and secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia after highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV infection. Grupo de Estudio del SIDA 04/98. N Engl J Med. 2001 Jan 18;344(3):159–167. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200101183440301. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Macdonald J. C., Torriani F. J., Morse L. S., Karavellas M. P., Reed J. B., Freeman W. R. Lack of reactivation of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis after stopping CMV maintenance therapy in AIDS patients with sustained elevations in CD4 T cells in response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 1998 May;177(5):1182–1187. doi: 10.1086/515281. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Maiman M., Watts D. H., Andersen J., Clax P., Merino M., Kendall M. A. Vaginal 5-fluorouracil for high-grade cervical dysplasia in human immunodeficiency virus infection: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol. 1999 Dec;94(6):954–961. doi: 10.1016/s0029-7844(99)00407-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Martin D. F., Kuppermann B. D., Wolitz R. A., Palestine A. G., Li H., Robinson C. A. Oral ganciclovir for patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis treated with a ganciclovir implant. Roche Ganciclovir Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1999 Apr 8;340(14):1063–1070. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199904083401402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Martin J. N., Ganem D. E., Osmond D. H., Page-Shafer K. A., Macrae D., Kedes D. H. Sexual transmission and the natural history of human herpesvirus 8 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998 Apr 2;338(14):948–954. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199804023381403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Masur H. Recommendations on prophylaxis and therapy for disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Public Health Service Task Force on Prophylaxis and Therapy for Mycobacterium avium Complex. N Engl J Med. 1993 Sep 16;329(12):898–904. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199309163291228. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. McKinsey D. S., Wheat L. J., Cloud G. A., Pierce M., Black J. R., Bamberger D. M., Goldman M., Thomas C. J., Gutsch H. M., Moskovitz B. Itraconazole prophylaxis for fungal infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection: randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 May;28(5):1049–1056. doi: 10.1086/514744. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. McNaghten A. D., Hanson D. L., Jones J. L., Dworkin M. S., Ward J. W. Effects of antiretroviral therapy and opportunistic illness primary chemoprophylaxis on survival after AIDS diagnosis. Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Group. AIDS. 1999 Sep 10;13(13):1687–1695. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199909100-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Mussini C., Pezzotti P., Govoni A., Borghi V., Antinori A., d'Arminio Monforte A., De Luca A., Mongiardo N., Cerri M. C., Chiodo F. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus type I-infected patients: the changes in opportunistic prophylaxis study. J Infect Dis. 2000 May 15;181(5):1635–1642. doi: 10.1086/315471. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Opravil M., Hirschel B., Lazzarin A., Heald A., Pechère M., Rüttimann S., Iten A., von Overbeck J., Oertle D., Praz G. Once-weekly administration of dapsone/pyrimethamine vs. aerosolized pentamidine as combined prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Mar;20(3):531–541. doi: 10.1093/clinids/20.3.531. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Palestine A. G., Polis M. A., De Smet M. D., Baird B. F., Falloon J., Kovacs J. A., Davey R. T., Zurlo J. J., Zunich K. M., Davis M. A randomized, controlled trial of foscarnet in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1991 Nov 1;115(9):665–673. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-115-9-665. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Para M. F., Finkelstein D., Becker S., Dohn M., Walawander A., Black J. R. Reduced toxicity with gradual initiation of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: AIDS Clinical Trials Group 268. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000 Aug 1;24(4):337–343. doi: 10.1097/00126334-200008010-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Parenteral cidofovir for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS: the HPMPC peripheral cytomegalovirus retinitis trial. A randomized, controlled trial. Studies of Ocular complications of AIDS Research Group in Collaboration with the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Ann Intern Med. 1997 Feb 15;126(4):264–274. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-126-4-199702150-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Pauk J., Huang M. L., Brodie S. J., Wald A., Koelle D. M., Schacker T., Celum C., Selke S., Corey L. Mucosal shedding of human herpesvirus 8 in men. N Engl J Med. 2000 Nov 9;343(19):1369–1377. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200011093431904. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Pierce M., Crampton S., Henry D., Heifets L., LaMarca A., Montecalvo M., Wormser G. P., Jablonowski H., Jemsek J., Cynamon M. A randomized trial of clarithromycin as prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in patients with advanced acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1996 Aug 8;335(6):384–391. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199608083350603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Plancoulaine S., Abel L., van Beveren M., Trégouët D. A., Joubert M., Tortevoye P., de Thé G., Gessain A. Human herpesvirus 8 transmission from mother to child and between siblings in an endemic population. Lancet. 2000 Sep 23;356(9235):1062–1065. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02729-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Podzamczer D., Salazar A., Jiménez J., Consiglio E., Santín M., Casanova A., Rufí G., Gudiol F. Intermittent trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with dapsone-pyrimethamine for the simultaneous primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in patients infected with HIV. Ann Intern Med. 1995 May 15;122(10):755–761. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-122-10-199505150-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Powderly W. G., Finkelstein D., Feinberg J., Frame P., He W., van der Horst C., Koletar S. L., Eyster M. E., Carey J., Waskin H. A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with clotrimazole troches for the prevention of fungal infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1995 Mar 16;332(11):700–705. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199503163321102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Powderly W. G., Saag M. S., Cloud G. A., Robinson P., Meyer R. D., Jacobson J. M., Graybill J. R., Sugar A. M., McAuliffe V. J., Follansbee S. E. A controlled trial of fluconazole or amphotericin B to prevent relapse of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. The NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group and Mycoses Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1992 Mar 19;326(12):793–798. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199203193261203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Pursley T. J., Blomquist I. K., Abraham J., Andersen H. F., Bartley J. A. Fluconazole-induced congenital anomalies in three infants. Clin Infect Dis. 1996 Feb;22(2):336–340. doi: 10.1093/clinids/22.2.336. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Renwick N., Halaby T., Weverling G. J., Dukers N. H., Simpson G. R., Coutinho R. A., Lange J. M., Schulz T. F., Goudsmit J. Seroconversion for human herpesvirus 8 during HIV infection is highly predictive of Kaposi's sarcoma. AIDS. 1998 Dec 24;12(18):2481–2488. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199818000-00018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Rodríguez-Rosado R., García-Samaniego J., Soriano V. Hepatotoxicity after introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 1998 Jul 9;12(10):1256–1256. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199810000-00025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Saag M. S., Cloud G. A., Graybill J. R., Sobel J. D., Tuazon C. U., Johnson P. C., Fessel W. J., Moskovitz B. L., Wiesinger B., Cosmatos D. A comparison of itraconazole versus fluconazole as maintenance therapy for AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. Clin Infect Dis. 1999 Feb;28(2):291–296. doi: 10.1086/515110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Savès M., Raffi F., Clevenbergh P., Marchou B., Waldner-Combernoux A., Morlat P., Le Moing V., Rivière C., Chêne G., Leport C. Hepatitis B or hepatitis C virus infection is a risk factor for severe hepatic cytolysis after initiation of a protease inhibitor-containing antiretroviral regimen in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. The APROCO Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000 Dec;44(12):3451–3455. doi: 10.1128/aac.44.12.3451-3455.2000. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Schacker T., Hu H. L., Koelle D. M., Zeh J., Saltzman R., Boon R., Shaughnessy M., Barnum G., Corey L. Famciclovir for the suppression of symptomatic and asymptomatic herpes simplex virus reactivation in HIV-infected persons. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1998 Jan 1;128(1):21–28. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-128-1-199801010-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Schacker T., Zeh J., Hu H. L., Hill E., Corey L. Frequency of symptomatic and asymptomatic herpes simplex virus type 2 reactivations among human immunodeficiency virus-infected men. J Infect Dis. 1998 Dec;178(6):1616–1622. doi: 10.1086/314486. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Schneider M. M., Borleffs J. C., Stolk R. P., Jaspers C. A., Hoepelman A. I. Discontinuation of prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-1-infected patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Lancet. 1999 Jan 16;353(9148):201–203. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07204-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Schneider M. M., Hoepelman A. I., Eeftinck Schattenkerk J. K., Nielsen T. L., van der Graaf Y., Frissen J. P., van der Ende I. M., Kolsters A. F., Borleffs J. C. A controlled trial of aerosolized pentamidine or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. The Dutch AIDS Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. 1992 Dec 24;327(26):1836–1841. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199212243272603. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Schneider M. M., Nielsen T. L., Nelsing S., Hoepelman A. I., Eeftinck Schattenkerk J. K., van der Graaf Y., Kolsters A. F., Borleffs J. C. Efficacy and toxicity of two doses of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus. Dutch AIDS Treatment Group. J Infect Dis. 1995 Jun;171(6):1632–1636. doi: 10.1093/infdis/171.6.1632. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Schuman P., Capps L., Peng G., Vazquez J., el-Sadr W., Goldman A. I., Alston B., Besch C. L., Vaughn A., Thompson M. A. Weekly fluconazole for the prevention of mucosal candidiasis in women with HIV infection. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1997 May 1;126(9):689–696. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-126-9-199705010-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Sitas F., Newton R., Boshoff C. Increasing probability of mother-to-child transmission of HHV-8 with increasing maternal antibody titer for HHV-8. N Engl J Med. 1999 Jun 17;340(24):1923–1923. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199906173402414. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Soriano V., Dona C., Rodríguez-Rosado R., Barreiro P., González-Lahoz J. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2000 Mar 10;14(4):383–386. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200003100-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Spector S. A., Gelber R. D., McGrath N., Wara D., Barzilai A., Abrams E., Bryson Y. J., Dankner W. M., Livingston R. A., Connor E. M. A controlled trial of intravenous immune globulin for the prevention of serious bacterial infections in children receiving zidovudine for advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1994 Nov 3;331(18):1181–1187. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199411033311802. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Spector S. A., McKinley G. F., Lalezari J. P., Samo T., Andruczk R., Follansbee S., Sparti P. D., Havlir D. V., Simpson G., Buhles W. Oral ganciclovir for the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in persons with AIDS. Roche Cooperative Oral Ganciclovir Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1996 Jun 6;334(23):1491–1497. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199606063342302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Spector S. A., Weingeist T., Pollard R. B., Dieterich D. T., Samo T., Benson C. A., Busch D. F., Freeman W. R., Montague P., Kaplan H. J. A randomized, controlled study of intravenous ganciclovir therapy for cytomegalovirus peripheral retinitis in patients with AIDS. AIDS Clinical Trials Group and Cytomegalovirus Cooperative Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1993 Sep;168(3):557–563. doi: 10.1093/infdis/168.3.557. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Sulkowski M. S., Thomas D. L., Chaisson R. E., Moore R. D. Hepatotoxicity associated with antiretroviral therapy in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus and the role of hepatitis C or B virus infection. JAMA. 2000 Jan 5;283(1):74–80. doi: 10.1001/jama.283.1.74. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Thomas D. L., Shih J. W., Alter H. J., Vlahov D., Cohn S., Hoover D. R., Cheung L., Nelson K. E. Effect of human immunodeficiency virus on hepatitis C virus infection among injecting drug users. J Infect Dis. 1996 Oct;174(4):690–695. doi: 10.1093/infdis/174.4.690. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Torriani F. J., Freeman W. R., Macdonald J. C., Karavellas M. P., Durand D. M., Jeffrey D. D., Meylan P. R., Schrier R. D. CMV retinitis recurs after stopping treatment in virological and immunological failures of potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2000 Jan 28;14(2):173–180. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200001280-00013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Tural C., Romeu J., Sirera G., Andreu D., Conejero M., Ruiz S., Jou A., Bonjoch A., Ruiz L., Arnó A. Long-lasting remission of cytomegalovirus retinitis without maintenance therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Infect Dis. 1998 Apr;177(4):1080–1083. doi: 10.1086/517399. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Vrabec T. R., Baldassano V. F., Whitcup S. M. Discontinuation of maintenance therapy in patients with quiescent cytomegalovirus retinitis and elevated CD4+ counts. Ophthalmology. 1998 Jul;105(7):1259–1264. doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(98)97031-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Weverling G. J., Mocroft A., Ledergerber B., Kirk O., Gonzáles-Lahoz J., d'Arminio Monforte A., Proenca R., Phillips A. N., Lundgren J. D., Reiss P. Discontinuation of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia prophylaxis after start of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infection. EuroSIDA Study Group. Lancet. 1999 Apr 17;353(9161):1293–1298. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(99)03287-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Wheat J., Hafner R., Wulfsohn M., Spencer P., Squires K., Powderly W., Wong B., Rinaldi M., Saag M., Hamill R. Prevention of relapse of histoplasmosis with itraconazole in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1993 Apr 15;118(8):610–616. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-118-8-199304150-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Whitcup S. M., Fortin E., Lindblad A. S., Griffiths P., Metcalf J. A., Robinson M. R., Manischewitz J., Baird B., Perry C., Kidd I. M. Discontinuation of anticytomegalovirus therapy in patients with HIV infection and cytomegalovirus retinitis. JAMA. 1999 Nov 3;282(17):1633–1637. doi: 10.1001/jama.282.17.1633. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Yangco B. G., Von Bargen J. C., Moorman A. C., Holmberg S. D. Discontinuation of chemoprophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV infection. HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) Investigators. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Feb 1;132(3):201–205. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-132-3-200002010-00005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Young S., Morlet N., Besen G., Wiley C. A., Jones P., Gold J., Li Y., Freeman W. R., Coroneo M. T. High-dose (2000-microgram) intravitreous ganciclovir in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis. Ophthalmology. 1998 Aug;105(8):1404–1410. doi: 10.1016/s0161-6420(98)98020-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. de Smet M. D., Meenken C. J., van den Horn G. J. Fomivirsen - a phosphorothioate oligonucleotide for the treatment of CMV retinitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1999 Dec;7(3-4):189–198. doi: 10.1076/ocii.7.3.189.4007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Infectious Diseases in Obstetrics and Gynecology are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES