Skip to main content
NCBI home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2008 Jan 1.
Published in final edited form as: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2006 Dec 22;86(1):86–91. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.011

Effects of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21, putative σ2-preferring antagonists, on behavioral toxic and stimulant effects of cocaine in mice

Rae R Matsumoto a,b,*, Buddy Pouw a, Aisha L Mack a, Antawan Daniels a, Andrew Coop c
PMCID: PMC1892169  NIHMSID: NIHMS19579  PMID: 17241657

Abstract

Earlier studies have demonstrated that antagonism of σ1 receptors attenuates the convulsive, lethal, locomotor stimulatory and rewarding actions of cocaine in mice. In contrast, the contribution of σ2 receptors is unclear because experimental tools to selectively target this subtype are unavailable. To begin addressing this need, we characterized UMB24 (1-(2-phenethyl)-4-(2-pyridyl)-piperazine) and (±)-SM 21 (3α-tropanyl-2-(4-chorophenoxy)butyrate) in receptor binding and behavioral studies. Receptor binding studies confirmed that UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 display preferential affinity for σ2 over σ1 receptors. In behavioral studies, pretreatment of Swiss Webster mice with UMB24 or (±)-SM 21 significantly attenuated cocaine-induced convulsions and locomotor activity, but not lethality. When administered alone, (±)-SM 21 produced no significant effects compared to control injections of saline, but UMB24 had locomotor depressant actions. Together, the data suggest that σ2 receptor antagonists have the potential to attenuate some of the behavioral effects of cocaine, and further development of more selective, high affinity ligands are warranted.

Keywords: Cocaine, σ Receptors, UMB24, (±)-SM 21, Convulsions, Locomotor activity

1. Introduction

σ Receptors are unique proteins with an amino acid sequence, drug selectivity pattern, and anatomical distribution that is distinctly different from other mammalian proteins (Guitart et al., 2004; Matsumoto et al., 2003). There are two established subtypes, σ1 and σ2, which are localized in many motor, limbic, and endocrine regions of the brain (Bouchard and Quirion, 1997).

Cocaine interacts with σ receptors at concentrations that can be achieved in vivo (Sharkey et al., 1988). Pharmacological antagonists and antisense oligonucleotides with a high degree of selectivity for σ receptors attenuate a number of cocaine-induced behaviors, suggesting that these receptors are promising targets for the development of pharmacotherapies to treat cocaine abuse (Matsumoto et al., 2002, 2003; Maurice et al., 2002). Of the two established σ receptor subtypes, the existing data support a role for σ1 receptors in mediating anticocaine effects, but the contributions of σ2 receptors are less clear.

One of the difficulties in evaluating the role of σ2 receptors is the dearth of selective pharmacological antagonists for this subtype and the lack of an amino acid sequence from which antisense oligodeoxynucleotides that target these receptors can be developed. Although reports of σ2 ligands abound in the literature (Bertha et al., 1995; Bowen et al., 1995a,b; Kassiou et al., 2005; Mach et al., 1995; Maeda et al., 2002; Maier and Wunsch, 2002; Perregaard et al., 1995; Vangveravong et al., 2006), the primary criterion for these claims appears to be reasonable affinity for this receptor subtype relative to σ1, with little consideration for selectivity as compared to non-σ binding sites. In addition, the few σ2 compounds that have been tested in functional studies appear to act as agonists (Bowen et al., 1995a,b; Crawford et al., 2002; Vilner and Bowen, 2000). One exception is (±)-SM 21 (3α-tropanyl-2-(4-chorophenoxy)butyrate), a σ2 preferring compound, which produces antagonist actions against dystonic head movements and cocaine-induced behaviors in rodents (Ghelardini et al., 2000; Matsumoto and Mack, 2001). Both of these endpoints have been shown in earlier studies to possess a strong σ receptor-mediated component (Matsumoto et al., 1995, 2003).

Recently, AC927 (phenethylpiperidine), a mixed σ1/2 compound, was shown to produce antagonist actions through σ2 receptors under in vitro conditions (Crawford et al., 2002). Among piperazine analogs of AC927 which were subsequently developed, UMB24 (1-(2-phenethyl)-4-(2-pyridyl)-piperazine) has been reported as a potential lead for the development of selective σ2 receptor agents (Maeda et al., 2002). Due to its structural relationship to AC927, it was conceivable that UMB24 also possessed antagonist actions at σ2 receptors. Therefore, in the present study, UMB24 was further characterized to evaluate its relative selectivity for σ2 receptors and its ability to attenuate cocaine-induced behaviors in mice. The putative σ2-preferring antagonist (±)-SM 21 was used as a reference compound for these studies (Ghelardini et al., 2000; Matsumoto and Mack, 2001).

2. Methods

2.1. Drugs and chemicals

UMB24 (1-(2-phenethyl)-4-(2-pyridyl)-piperazine) was synthesized as described previously (Maeda et al., 2002). (±)-SM 21 maleate was purchased from Tocris (Ballwin, MO). The structures of these compounds are shown in Fig. 1. Cocaine hydrochloride was obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, MO). The radioligands were procured from Dupont/New England Nuclear/Perkin Elmer (Boston, MA). All other chemicals and reagents were obtained from standard commercial suppliers (Aldrich, Milwaukee, WI; Sigma, St. Louis, MO).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Chemical structures of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21.

2.2. Animals

Male, Sprague Dawley rats (150–200 g, Harlan, Indianapolis, IN) were used for the receptor binding studies. Male, Swiss Webster mice (23–33 g, Harlan, Indianapolis, IN; Charles River, Portage, MI) were used for the behavioral experiments. The animals were housed in groups with a 12:12 h light/dark cycle and ad libitum food and water. The mice were randomly assigned to experimental groups, with at least two different shipments being tested on separate days to form the final data set for each dose/drug group. All procedures were performed as approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center and the University of Mississippi.

2.3. Radioligand binding studies

UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 were evaluated in competition binding assays using rat brain homogenates (400–500 μg protein, unless specified otherwise) and methods previously described (Matsumoto et al., 2002). Briefly, σ1 receptors were labeled using 5 nM [3H](±)-pentazocine. σ2 Receptors were labeled with 3 nM [3H]di-o-tolylguanidine, in the presence of 300 nM (±)-pentazocine to mask σ1 receptors. Nonspecific binding was determined in the presence of 10 μM haloperidol. Twelve concentrations of test ligand (0.05–10 000 nM) were incubated for 120 min at 25° C to evaluate their ability to displace the binding of the radioligand.

The affinities of the compounds for dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine transporters were also determined because cocaine interacts with these monoamine transporters. The membrane preparation and assay conditions were modified slightly from those previously described (Boja et al., 1994). Briefly, dopamine transporters were assayed in 2 mg wet weight rat striatal tissue using 0.5 nM [3H]WIN35,428; nonspecific binding was determined with 50 μM cocaine. Serotonin transporters were assayed in 1.5 mg wet weight rat brainstem tissue using 0.2 nM [3H]paroxetine; nonspecific binding was determined with 1.5 μM imipramine. Norepinephrine transporters were assayed in 8 mg wet weight rat cerebral cortical tissue using [3H]nisoxetine; nonspecific binding was determined with 4 μM desipramine.

In addition, the relative selectivities of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 were determined for dopamine, opioid, and phencyclidine sites on NMDA receptors because many historic σ receptor ligands interact with them (Guitart et al., 2004). The affinities of these compounds for 5-HT2 receptors were also examined because antagonists at these sites are capable of attenuating the toxicity of cocaine (Ritz and George, 1997). The affinities of the ligands were measured in homogenates from rat brain minus cerebellum using previously published methods (Matsumoto et al., 1995). Briefly, dopamine (D2) receptors were labeled with 5 nM [3H](−)-sulpiride; nonspecific binding was determined with 1 μM haloperidol. Opioid (κ) receptors were labeled with 2 nM [3H]bremazocine; nonspecific binding was determined with 10 μM levallorphan. NMDA receptors were labeled with 5 nM [3H]TCP (1-[1-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl]piperidine); nonspecific binding was determined with 10 μM cyclazocine. 5-HT2 receptors were labeled with 2 nM [3H]ketanserin; nonspecific binding was determined with 1 μM mianserin. The incubations were performed for 60 min at 25 ° C for the dopamine and opioid receptor assays, 30 min at 37 ° C for the receptor assays, and for 60 min 5-HT2 at 4 ° C for the NMDA receptor assays.

All assays were terminated with the addition of ice-cold buffer and vacuum filtration through glass fiber filters. Counts were extracted from the filters using Ecoscint cocktail (National Diagnostics, Manville, NJ) for at least 8 hours prior to counting.

2.4. Cocaine-induced behavioral toxicity

Cocaine-induced convulsions and lethality were evaluated in separate studies. For the convulsion studies, each mouse (n=85) was pretreated with UMB24 (0–10 mg/kg, i.p.) or (±)-SM 21 (0–10 mg/kg, i.p.), followed 15 min later with a convulsive dose of cocaine (70 mg/kg, i.p.). For the lethality studies, each mouse (n=83) was pretreated with UMB24 (0–50 mg/kg, i.p.) or (±)-SM 21 (0–20 mg/kg, i.p.), followed 15 min later with a lethal dose of cocaine (125 mg/kg, i.p.). The cocaine doses represent the lowest ones that reliably produced convulsions or death in 100% of the animals. Mice were monitored over a 30 min period for the occurrence of convulsions (operationally defined as a loss of righting reflexes for at least 5 s together with the presence of clonic limb movements) or death. Fisher’s exact tests were used to analyze the data.

2.5. Cocaine-induced locomotor activity

The locomotor studies were conducted as described previously (Matsumoto et al., 2002). Following a habituation period in the testing chamber of an automated activity monitor (San Diego Instruments, San Diego, CA, USA), each mouse (n=102) was injected with UMB24 (0–1 mg/kg, i.p.) or (±)-SM 21 (0–1 mg/kg, i.p.) alone or followed 15 min later with a locomotor stimulatory dose of cocaine (10 mg/kg, i.p.). Horizontal locomotor activity was then quantified for 30 min as the number of disruptions made by each mouse in the 4 × 4 photobeam array surrounding each testing chamber. The dose of cocaine used is the lowest one that produced maximal effects in earlier dose response characterizations (McCracken et al., 1999).

3. Results

3.1. Radioligand binding assays

The affinities of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 for σ2 receptors, compared to other binding sites of interest, are summarized in Table 1. The competition binding studies confirmed that UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 have preferential affinity for σ2 receptors, as compared to σ1 receptors (Mach et al., 1999; Maeda et al., 2002). (±)-SM 21 exhibited nearly 10-fold preferential affinity for σ2 receptors, as compared to σ1 receptors, while UMB24 exhibited only about a 2-fold preference.

Table 1.

Binding affinities of σ2 receptor preferring compounds (Ki in nM)

Sigma receptor subtypes:
σ1 receptor σ2 receptor
UMB24 322 ± 32 170 ± 5
(±)-SM 21 1050 ± 63 145 ± 7
Monoamine transporters:
Dopamine 5-HT Norepinephrine
UMB24 3476 ± 298 2933 ± 52 3560 ± 628
(±)-SM 21 176 ± 30 >10 000 2005 ± 325
Other receptors:
Opioid (κ) NMDA Dopamine (D2) 5-HT2
UMB24 >10 000 >10 000 305 ± 26 595 ± 55
(±)-SM 21 >10 000 >10 000 885 ± 34 476 ± 7
Open in a new tab

Competition binding assays were performed in rat brain homogenates using standard methods. Values represent mean ± SEM from at least three assays, each performed in duplicate. Values of >10 000 indicate that there was less than 30% displacement of the radioligand at that concentration.

In contrast to their nanomolar affinities for σ2 receptors, the compounds for the most part had micromolar affinities for monoamine transporters. The exception was (±)-SM 21, which exhibited similar affinity for dopamine transporters as σ2 receptors (Table 1). UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 did not display measurable binding to opioid or NMDA receptors, although they had moderate affinities for dopamine D2 and 5-HT2 receptors.

3.2. Cocaine-induced behavioral toxicity

The ability of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 to attenuate cocaine-induced convulsions is summarized in Fig. 2. Fisher’s exact tests revealed that pretreatment of mice with UMB24 or (±)-SM 21 attenuated cocaine-induced convulsions in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.005). However, none of the tested doses of UMB24 or (±)-SM 21 attenuated cocaine-induced lethality, even at doses higher than those used to reduce cocaine-induced convulsions.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

Effects of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 on cocaine-induced convulsions. Male, Swiss Webster mice were pretreated with UMB24 or (±)-SM 21 (0–10 mg/kg, i.p.) followed 15 min later with a convulsive dose of cocaine (70 mg/kg, i.p.). UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 significantly attenuated cocaine-induced convulsions (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.005).

3.3. Cocaine-induced locomotor activity

The effects of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 on basal and cocaine-induced locomotor activity are summarized in Fig. 3. Pretreatment of mice with UMB24 significantly attenuated the hyperactivity elicited by cocaine (F (2, 31) = 3.49, p < 0.05). Post-hoc Dunnett’s tests revealed that the reduction in cocaine-induced behavior was significant at the 1 mg/kg dose of UMB24 (q=2.62, p < 0.05). The putative σ2 receptor antagonist (±)-SM 21 also significantly attenuated cocaine-induced locomotor activity (F (2, 23) = 5.01, p < 0.05). Post-hoc Dunnett’s test confirmed that the antagonism of cocaine-induced behavior was significant for both doses of (±)-SM 21: 0.1 mg/kg (q=2.81, p < 0.05) and 1 mg/kg (q=2.53, p < 0.05).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Open in a new tab

Effects of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 on basal and cocaine-induced locomotor activity. Male, Swiss Webster mice were injected (i.p.) with UMB24 or (±)-SM 21 (0, 0.1 or 1 mg/kg, i.p.) alone or as a 15 min pretreatment to a locomotor stimulatory dose of cocaine (10 mg/kg, i.p.). Horizontal locomotor activity was quantified for 30 min using an automated activity monitoring system. UMB24 produced a significant locomotor depressant effect on its own (#p < 0.01), and also attenuated cocaine-induced locomotor activity (*p < 0.05). (±)-SM 21 had no significant effect of its own on locomotor activity, although it significantly attenuated cocaine-induced locomotor activity (*p < 0.05).

In addition to reducing the locomotor activity elicited by cocaine, UMB24 alone significantly decreased basal activity (F (2, 36) = 24.16, p < 0.0005). Post-hoc Dunnett’s tests revealed that basal locomotor activity differed significantly from the saline control for both doses of UMB24: 0.1 mg/kg (q=3.46, p < 0.01) and 1 mg/kg (q=6.91, p < 0.01). In contrast, significant alterations in basal locomotor activity were not observed with (±)-SM 21 (F (2, 26) = 0.025, n.s.).

4. Discussion

The σ2 preferring compounds, UMB24 and (±)-SM 21, produced similar effects against cocaine-induced behaviors. UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 both significantly attenuated cocaine-induced convulsions and locomotor activity. However, the compounds did not prevent the lethal effects of cocaine. One reason that the σ2 preferring ligands may not have prevented cocaine-induced lethality is that important target organs such as the heart are enriched in σ1 receptors. Over 90% of the σ receptors in the heart are of the σ1 subtype (Matsumoto et al., 2001; Novakova et al., 1995), which may contribute to the ability of σ1, but perhaps not σ2, antagonists to attenuate cocaine-induced lethality. In contrast, the ability of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 to attenuate cocaine-induced convulsions and locomotor activity suggests that σ2 receptors can be targeted to mitigate many cocaine-induced behaviors.

Earlier studies showed that pretreatment of mice with (±)-SM 21 prevented cocaine-induced convulsions, but that the efficacy of the intervention plateaued around 50% protection (Matsumoto and Mack, 2001). However, in the present study, both UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 dose dependently attenuated cocaine-induced convulsions, suggesting that antagonism of σ2 receptors contributes to the anticonvulsive actions of σ receptor ligands. When compared to one another, UMB24 produced better protective actions than (±)-SM 21 against cocaine-induced convulsions. The protective actions of UMB24 occurred across as wider range of doses and the protected animals had a greater tendency to look normal. In contrast, (±)-SM 21-treated mice that did not meet the criterion for cocaine-induced convulsions tended to exhibit noticeable seizure-related behaviors such as pronounced locomotor excitation with ataxia. A possible reason that (±)-SM 21 may not provide as good of a protective effect against cocaine-induced convulsions, as compared to UMB24, involves its weaker affinity for σ1 receptors. Earlier studies have shown that σ1 receptor antagonists provide significant protection against cocaine-induced convulsions (Matsumoto et al., 2003). Therefore, compounds that elicit antagonist actions through both σ1 and σ2 receptors may convey better protective effects against cocaine-induced convulsions than targeting either subtype alone.

The ability of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 to prevent cocaine-induced locomotor activity occurred at low doses, and this is consistent with reports that the σ2 subtype has an important role in motor function (Walker et al., 1993). However, the two compounds differed in their effects on basal locomotor activity. In contrast to (±)-SM 21, which attenuated cocaine-induced locomotor activity at doses that alone had no effects on basal locomotor activity, UMB24 alone produced locomotor depressant actions. Potential explanations for the different effects on basal activity levels most likely relate to the non-σ mediated actions of the compounds. First, UMB24 has higher affinity for dopamine D2 receptors, compared to (±)-SM 21. If UMB24 is an antagonist at D2 receptors, it would explain the locomotor depressant actions under basal conditions (Zhang and Creese, 1993). Second, (±)-SM 21 has higher affinity for dopamine transporters, as compared to UMB24. It is therefore possible that competing interactions between dopamine transporters and σ2 receptors underlie the pattern of results. Compounds that bind to dopamine transporters tend to inhibit dopamine uptake and produce cocaine-like actions (Uhl et al., 2002), making it likely that (±)-SM 21 possesses some locomotor stimulant actions through dopamine transporters. Since σ2 receptor agonists can stimulate locomotor activity (Walker et al., 1993), it is possible that under certain conditions, locomotor depressant actions could result through σ2 receptor-mediated antagonism of tonic locomotor tone. If σ2 antagonists depress basal locomotor activity under the conditions of our study, competing stimulant effects through dopamine transporters may mask potential locomotor depressant actions of (±)-SM 21 under basal conditions. Although additional studies are needed to further define the contribution of each of these mechanisms to basal locomotor function, the data with regard to cocaine are clear. Low doses of both UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 attenuate cocaine-induced locomotor activity, suggesting the importance of the σ2 subtype in mediating the locomotor stimulant actions of cocaine.

The results observed herein suggest that future studies to resolve racemic SM 21 for further characterization of each isomer are warranted. These characterizations should provide valuable insight into configurations that convey favorable affinity and selectivity for σ2 receptors, as compared to σ1 receptors and non-σ binding sites. Additional modifications to improve the affinity and selectivity of UMB24 for σ2 receptors also represent a potential avenue for further investigations.

When taken together, the data suggest that UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 can attenuate cocaine-induced behaviors through functional antagonism of σ2 receptors. However, conclusive statements regarding the role of σ2 receptors in the actions of cocaine must await additional studies using truly selective and high affinity σ2 receptor compounds. Future efforts to improve the selectivity and affinity of UMB24 and (±)-SM 21 could lead to the development of true σ2 receptor antagonists, which would allow a conclusive determination of the role of this subtype in the actions of cocaine.

Acknowledgments

We appreciate the technical assistance of Veena Shetty and Erika Ayala. This project was supported by grants from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA11979, DA13978) and an Independent Scientist Award for AC (DA19634). AD received support from NIDA as a post-baccalaureate fellow; ALM and EA were participants in the NIDA Summer Fellows Program.

Footnotes

Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

References

  1. Bertha CM, Vilner BJ, Mattson MV, Bowen WD, Becketts K, Xu H, Rothman RB, Flippen-Anderson JL, Rice KC. (E)-8-Benzylidene derivatives of 2-methyl-5-(3-hydroxyphenyl)morphans: highly selective ligands for the sigma 2 receptor subtype. J Med Chem. 1995;38:4776–85. doi: 10.1021/jm00024a005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Boja JW, Kuhar MJ, Kopajtic T, Yang E, Abraham P, Lewin AH, et al. Secondary amine analogues of 3β-(4′-substituted phenyl)tropane-2β-carboxylic acid esters and N-norcocaine exhibit enhanced affinity for serotonin and norepinephrine transporters. J Med Chem. 1994;37:1220–3. doi: 10.1021/jm00034a021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bouchard P, Quirion R. [3H]1,3-Di(2-tolyl)guanidine and [3H](±)-pentazocine binding sites in the rat brain: autoradiographic visualization of the putative sigma1 and sigma2 receptor subtypes. Neuroscience. 1997;6:467–77. doi: 10.1016/s0306-4522(96)00221-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bowen WD, Bertha CM, Vilner BJ, Rice KC. CB-64D and CB-184: Ligands with high σ2 receptor affinity and subtype selectivity. Eur J Pharmacol. 1995a;278:257–60. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(95)00176-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bowen WD, Vilner BJ, Williams W, Bertha CM, Kuehne ME, Jacobson AE. Ibogaine and its congeners are sigma 2 receptor-selective ligands with moderate affinity. Eur J Pharmacol. 1995b;279:R1–3. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(95)00247-i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Crawford KW, Coop A, Bowen WD. σ2 Receptors regulate changes in sphingolipid levels in breast tumor cells. Eur J Pharmacol. 2002;443:207–9. doi: 10.1016/s0014-2999(02)01581-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Gebreselassie D, Bowen WD. σ2 Receptors are specifically localized to lipid rafts in rat liver membranes. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;493:19–28. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.04.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Ghelardini C, Galeotti N, Bartolini A. Pharmacological identification of SM-21, the novel σ2 antagonist. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2000;67:659–62. doi: 10.1016/s0091-3057(00)00405-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Guitart X, Codony X, Monroy X. Sigma receptors: biology and therapeutic potential. Psychopharmacology. 2004;174:301–19. doi: 10.1007/s00213-004-1920-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Kassiou M, Dannals RF, Liu X, Wong DF, Ravert HT, Scheffel UA. Synthesis and in vivo evaluation of a new PET radioligand for studying sigma-2 receptors. Bioorg Med Chem. 2005;13:3623–6. doi: 10.1016/j.bmc.2005.03.039. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Mach RH, Smith CR, Childers SR. Ibogaine possesses a selective affinity for sigma 2 receptors. Life Sci. 1995;57:PL57–62. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(95)00301-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Mach RH, Wu L, West T, Whirrett BR, Childers SR. The analgesic tropane analogue (±)-SM 21 has a high affinity for σ2 receptors. Life Sci. 1999;64:PL131–7. doi: 10.1016/s0024-3205(99)00014-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Maeda DY, Williams W, Kim WE, Thatcher LN, Bowen WD, Coop A. N-Arylalkylpiperidines as high-affinity sigma-1 and sigma-2 receptor ligands: phenylpropylamines as potential leads for selective sigma-2 agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2002;2:497–500. doi: 10.1016/s0960-894x(01)00788-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Maier CA, Wunsch B. Novel spriopiperidines as high potent and subtype selective sigma-receptor ligands. Part 1 J Med Chem. 2002;45:438–48. doi: 10.1021/jm010992z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Matsumoto RR, Bowen WD, Tom MA, Vo VN, Truong DD, de Costa BR. Characterization of two novel σ receptor lignads: antidystonic effects in rats suggest s receptor antagonism. Eur J Pharmacol. 1995;280:301–10. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(95)00208-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Matsumoto RR, Hewett KL, Pouw B, Bowen WD, Husbands SM, Cao JJ, et al. Rimcazole analogs attenuate the convulsive effects of cocaine: correlation with binding to sigma receptors rather than dopamine transporters. Neuropharmacology. 2001;41:878–86. doi: 10.1016/s0028-3908(01)00116-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Matsumoto RR, McCracken KA, Pouw B, Zhang Y, Bowen WD. Involvement of sigma receptors in the behavioral effects of cocaine: evidence from novel ligands and antisense oligodeoxynucleotides. Neuroharmacology. 2002;42:1043–55. doi: 10.1016/s0028-3908(02)00056-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Matsumoto RR, Liu Y, Lerner M, Howard EW, Brackett DJ. σ Receptors: potential medications development target for anti-cocaine agents. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;469:1–12. doi: 10.1016/s0014-2999(03)01723-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Matsumoto RR, Mack AL. (±)-SM 21 attenuates the convulsive and locomotor stimulatory effects of cocaine in mice. Eur J Pharmacol. 2001;417:R1–2. doi: 10.1016/s0014-2999(01)00891-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Maurice T, Martin-Fardon R, Romieu P, Matsumoto RR. Sigma1 (σ1) receptor antagonists represent a new strategy against cocaine addiction and toxicity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002;26:499–527. doi: 10.1016/s0149-7634(02)00017-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. McCracken KA, Bowen WD, de Costa BR, Matsumoto RR. Two novel σ receptor ligands, BD1047 and LR172, attenuate cocaine-induced toxicity and locomotor activity. Eur J Pharmacol. 1999;370:225–32. doi: 10.1016/s0014-2999(99)00113-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Novakova M, Ela C, Barg J, Vogel E, Hasin Y, Eilam Y. Ionotropic action of sigma receptor ligands in isolated cardiac myocytes from adult rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 1995;286:19–30. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(95)00424-j. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Perregaard J, Moltzen EK, Meier E, Sanchez C. Sigma ligands with subnanomolar affinity and preference for the σ2 binding site. 1.3-(omega-aminoalkyl)-1H-indoles. J Med Chem. 1995;38:1998–2008. doi: 10.1021/jm00011a019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Ritz MC, George FR. Cocaine-induced convulsions: pharmacological antagonism at serotonergic, muscarinic and sigma receptors. Psychopharmacology. 1997;129:299–310. doi: 10.1007/s002130050197. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Sharkey J, Glen KA, Wolfe S, Kuhar MJ. Cocaine binding at σ receptors. Eur J Pharmacol. 1988;149:171–4. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(88)90058-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Uhl GR, Hall FS, Sora I. Cocaine reward, movement and monoamine transporters. Mol Psychiatry. 2002;7:21–6. doi: 10.1038/sj.mp.4000964. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Vangveravong S, Xu J, Zeng C, Mach RH. Synthesis of N-substituted 9-azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-3α-yl-carbamate analogs as σ2 receptor ligands. Bioorg Med Chem. 2006;14:6988–6997. doi: 10.1016/j.bmc.2006.06.028. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Vilner BJ, Bowen WD. Modulation of cellular calcium by sigma-2 receptors: release from intracellular stores in human SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2000;292:900–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Walker JM, Bowen WD, Patrick SL, Williams WE, Mascarella SW, Bai X, Carroll FI. A comparison of (−)-deoxybenzomorphans devoid of opiate activity with their dextrorotatory phenolic counterparts suggests role of σ2 receptors in motor function. Eur J Pharmacol. 1993;231:61–8. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(93)90684-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Zhang M, Creese I. Antisense oligodeoxynucleotide reduces brain dopamine D2 receptors: behavioral correlates. Neurosci Lett. 1993;161:223–6. doi: 10.1016/0304-3940(93)90299-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

RESOURCES