Skip to main content
NCBI home page
The Journal of Cell Biology logoLink to The Journal of Cell Biology
. 1986 Nov 1;103(5):1945–1955. doi: 10.1083/jcb.103.5.1945

Evidence for posttranscriptional regulation of the keratins expressed during hyperproliferation and malignant transformation in human epidermis

PMCID: PMC2114388  PMID: 2430980

Abstract

Keratin K6 is a protein that is expressed in human skin under conditions of hyperproliferation (e.g., wound-healing, psoriasis, and cell culture) and malignant transformation (e.g., squamous cell carcinomas). When induced, the appearance of K6 is rapid: if skin tissue is placed in radiolabeled culture medium, this protein can be detected within an hour. The regulation of K6 seems to be controlled partly by a posttranscriptional mechanism: At least two K6 genes are actively transcribed both in vivo, when the protein is not made, as well as in vitro, when abundant levels of the protein are expressed. Substantial levels of K6a and K6b RNAs can be detected in skin by Northern Blot analysis, and these RNAs are largely, if not fully translatable in vitro. In situ hybridizations reveal that the RNAs are distributed throughout the living layers of the epidermis. The rapid induction of K6 expression through a posttranscriptional regulatory mechanism suggests that this keratin may play an important role in designing a cytoskeletal architecture that is compatible with the hyperproliferative state.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (3.5 MB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Bladon P. T., Bowden P. E., Cunliffe W. J., Wood E. J. Prekeratin biosynthesis in human scalp epidermis. Biochem J. 1982 Oct 15;208(1):179–187. doi: 10.1042/bj2080179. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Cox K. H., DeLeon D. V., Angerer L. M., Angerer R. C. Detection of mrnas in sea urchin embryos by in situ hybridization using asymmetric RNA probes. Dev Biol. 1984 Feb;101(2):485–502. doi: 10.1016/0012-1606(84)90162-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Eichner R., Bonitz P., Sun T. T. Classification of epidermal keratins according to their immunoreactivity, isoelectric point, and mode of expression. J Cell Biol. 1984 Apr;98(4):1388–1396. doi: 10.1083/jcb.98.4.1388. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Eichner R., Sun T. T., Aebi U. The role of keratin subfamilies and keratin pairs in the formation of human epidermal intermediate filaments. J Cell Biol. 1986 May;102(5):1767–1777. doi: 10.1083/jcb.102.5.1767. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Ernst V., Levin D. H., Leroux A., London I. M. Site-specific phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor eIF-2 by the heme-regulated and double-stranded RNA-activated eIF-2 alpha kinases from rabbit reticulocyte lysates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980 Mar;77(3):1286–1290. doi: 10.1073/pnas.77.3.1286. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Franke W. W., Schiller D. L., Hatzfeld M., Winter S. Protein complexes of intermediate-sized filaments: melting of cytokeratin complexes in urea reveals different polypeptide separation characteristics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983 Dec;80(23):7113–7117. doi: 10.1073/pnas.80.23.7113. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Fuchs E. V., Coppock S. M., Green H., Cleveland D. W. Two distinct classes of keratin genes and their evolutionary significance. Cell. 1981 Nov;27(1 Pt 2):75–84. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(81)90362-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Fuchs E., Green H. Changes in keratin gene expression during terminal differentiation of the keratinocyte. Cell. 1980 Apr;19(4):1033–1042. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(80)90094-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Fuchs E., Green H. Multiple keratins of cultured human epidermal cells are translated from different mRNA molecules. Cell. 1979 Jul;17(3):573–582. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(79)90265-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Fuchs E., Green H. Regulation of terminal differentiation of cultured human keratinocytes by vitamin A. Cell. 1981 Sep;25(3):617–625. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(81)90169-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Fuchs E., Green H. The expression of keratin genes in epidermis and cultured epidermal cells. Cell. 1978 Nov;15(3):887–897. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(78)90273-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Fuchs E., Hanukoglu I. Unraveling the structure of the intermediate filaments. Cell. 1983 Sep;34(2):332–334. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(83)90367-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Fuchs E., Marchuk D. Type I and type II keratins have evolved from lower eukaryotes to form the epidermal intermediate filaments in mammalian skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983 Oct;80(19):5857–5861. doi: 10.1073/pnas.80.19.5857. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Fukuyama K., Epstein W. L. Synthesis of RNA and protein during epidermal cell differentiation in man. Arch Dermatol. 1968 Jul;98(1):75–79. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Green H., Kehinde O., Thomas J. Growth of cultured human epidermal cells into multiple epithelia suitable for grafting. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Nov;76(11):5665–5668. doi: 10.1073/pnas.76.11.5665. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Greenberg M. E., Ziff E. B. Stimulation of 3T3 cells induces transcription of the c-fos proto-oncogene. Nature. 1984 Oct 4;311(5985):433–438. doi: 10.1038/311433a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Hagag N., Halegoua S., Viola M. Inhibition of growth factor-induced differentiation of PC12 cells by microinjection of antibody to ras p21. Nature. 1986 Feb 20;319(6055):680–682. doi: 10.1038/319680a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hanukoglu I., Fuchs E. The cDNA sequence of a Type II cytoskeletal keratin reveals constant and variable structural domains among keratins. Cell. 1983 Jul;33(3):915–924. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(83)90034-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Hanukoglu I., Fuchs E. The cDNA sequence of a human epidermal keratin: divergence of sequence but conservation of structure among intermediate filament proteins. Cell. 1982 Nov;31(1):243–252. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(82)90424-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Hatzfeld M., Franke W. W. Pair formation and promiscuity of cytokeratins: formation in vitro of heterotypic complexes and intermediate-sized filaments by homologous and heterologous recombinations of purified polypeptides. J Cell Biol. 1985 Nov;101(5 Pt 1):1826–1841. doi: 10.1083/jcb.101.5.1826. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Hoober J. K., Bernstein I. A. Protein synthesis related to epidermal differentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1966 Aug;56(2):594–601. doi: 10.1073/pnas.56.2.594. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Johnson L. D., Idler W. W., Zhou X. M., Roop D. R., Steinert P. M. Structure of a gene for the human epidermal 67-kDa keratin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985 Apr;82(7):1896–1900. doi: 10.1073/pnas.82.7.1896. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Kim K. H., Rheinwald J. G., Fuchs E. V. Tissue specificity of epithelial keratins: differential expression of mRNAs from two multigene families. Mol Cell Biol. 1983 Apr;3(4):495–502. doi: 10.1128/mcb.3.4.495. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Kim K. H., Schwartz F., Fuchs E. Differences in keratin synthesis between normal epithelial cells and squamous cell carcinomas are mediated by vitamin A. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Jul;81(14):4280–4284. doi: 10.1073/pnas.81.14.4280. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Krieg T. M., Schafer M. P., Cheng C. K., Filpula D., Flaherty P., Steinert P. M., Roop D. R. Organization of a type I keratin gene. Evidence for evolution of intermediate filaments from a common ancestral gene. J Biol Chem. 1985 May 25;260(10):5867–5870. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Laemmli U. K. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature. 1970 Aug 15;227(5259):680–685. doi: 10.1038/227680a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Laskey R. A., Mills A. D., Gurdon J. B., Partington G. A. Protein synthesis in oocytes of Xenopus laevis is not regulated by the supply of messenger RNA. Cell. 1977 Jun;11(2):345–351. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(77)90051-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Lavker R. M., Matoltsy A. G. Formation of horny cells: the fate of cell organelles and differentiation products in ruminal epithelium. J Cell Biol. 1970 Mar;44(3):501–512. doi: 10.1083/jcb.44.3.501. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Lee L. D., Baden H. P. Organisation of the polypeptide chains in mammalian keratin. Nature. 1976 Nov 25;264(5584):377–379. doi: 10.1038/264377a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Lehnert M. E., Jorcano J. L., Zentgraf H., Blessing M., Franz J. K., Franke W. W. Characterization of bovine keratin genes: similarities of exon patterns in genes coding for different keratins. EMBO J. 1984 Dec 20;3(13):3279–3287. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1984.tb02290.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Marchuk D., McCrohon S., Fuchs E. Remarkable conservation of structure among intermediate filament genes. Cell. 1984 Dec;39(3 Pt 2):491–498. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(84)90456-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. McGarry T. J., Lindquist S. The preferential translation of Drosophila hsp70 mRNA requires sequences in the untranslated leader. Cell. 1985 Oct;42(3):903–911. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(85)90286-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Moll R., Franke W. W., Schiller D. L., Geiger B., Krepler R. The catalog of human cytokeratins: patterns of expression in normal epithelia, tumors and cultured cells. Cell. 1982 Nov;31(1):11–24. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(82)90400-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Nelson W. G., Sun T. T. The 50- and 58-kdalton keratin classes as molecular markers for stratified squamous epithelia: cell culture studies. J Cell Biol. 1983 Jul;97(1):244–251. doi: 10.1083/jcb.97.1.244. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. O'Farrell P. Z., Goodman H. M., O'Farrell P. H. High resolution two-dimensional electrophoresis of basic as well as acidic proteins. Cell. 1977 Dec;12(4):1133–1141. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(77)90176-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Raff R. A., Brandis J. W., Huffman C. J., Koch A. L., Leister D. E. Protein synthesis as an early response to fertilization of the sea urchin egg: a model. Dev Biol. 1981 Sep;86(2):265–271. doi: 10.1016/0012-1606(81)90184-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. RayChaudhury A., Marchuk D., Lindhurst M., Fuchs E. Three tightly linked genes encoding human type I keratins: conservation of sequence in the 5'-untranslated leader and 5'-upstream regions of coexpressed keratin genes. Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Feb;6(2):539–548. doi: 10.1128/mcb.6.2.539. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Rheinwald J. G. Serial cultivation of normal human epidermal keratinocytes. Methods Cell Biol. 1980;21A:229–254. doi: 10.1016/s0091-679x(08)60769-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Rieger M., Jorcano J. L., Franke W. W. Complete sequence of a bovine type I cytokeratin gene: conserved and variable intron positions in genes of polypeptides of the same cytokeratin subfamily. EMBO J. 1985 Sep;4(9):2261–2267. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1985.tb03924.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Southern E. M. Detection of specific sequences among DNA fragments separated by gel electrophoresis. J Mol Biol. 1975 Nov 5;98(3):503–517. doi: 10.1016/s0022-2836(75)80083-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Steinert P. M., Idler W. W., Zimmerman S. B. Self-assembly of bovine epidermal keratin filaments in vitro. J Mol Biol. 1976 Dec 15;108(3):547–567. doi: 10.1016/s0022-2836(76)80136-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Steinert P. M., Steven A. C., Roop D. R. The molecular biology of intermediate filaments. Cell. 1985 Sep;42(2):411–420. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(85)90098-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Sun T. T., Green H. Keratin filaments of cultured human epidermal cells. Formation of intermolecular disulfide bonds during terminal differentiation. J Biol Chem. 1978 Mar 25;253(6):2053–2060. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Thomas P. S. Hybridization of denatured RNA and small DNA fragments transferred to nitrocellulose. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980 Sep;77(9):5201–5205. doi: 10.1073/pnas.77.9.5201. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Towbin H., Staehelin T., Gordon J. Electrophoretic transfer of proteins from polyacrylamide gels to nitrocellulose sheets: procedure and some applications. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Sep;76(9):4350–4354. doi: 10.1073/pnas.76.9.4350. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Tyner A. L., Eichman M. J., Fuchs E. The sequence of a type II keratin gene expressed in human skin: conservation of structure among all intermediate filament genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985 Jul;82(14):4683–4687. doi: 10.1073/pnas.82.14.4683. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Van Beveren C., Verma I. M. Homology among oncogenes. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 1986;123:73–98. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-70810-7_4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Viac J., Staquet M. J., Thivolet J., Goujon C. Experimental production of antibodies against stratum corneum keratin polypeptides. Arch Dermatol Res. 1980;267(2):179–188. doi: 10.1007/BF00569104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Warner J. R., Mitra G., Schwindinger W. F., Studeny M., Fried H. M. Saccharomyces cerevisiae coordinates accumulation of yeast ribosomal proteins by modulating mRNA splicing, translational initiation, and protein turnover. Mol Cell Biol. 1985 Jun;5(6):1512–1521. doi: 10.1128/mcb.5.6.1512. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Weiss R. A., Eichner R., Sun T. T. Monoclonal antibody analysis of keratin expression in epidermal diseases: a 48- and 56-kdalton keratin as molecular markers for hyperproliferative keratinocytes. J Cell Biol. 1984 Apr;98(4):1397–1406. doi: 10.1083/jcb.98.4.1397. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Winter H., Schweizer J. Keratin synthesis in normal mouse epithelia and in squamous cell carcinomas: evidence in tumors for masked mRNA species coding for high molecular weight keratin polypeptides. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983 Nov;80(21):6480–6484. doi: 10.1073/pnas.80.21.6480. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Woodcock-Mitchell J., Eichner R., Nelson W. G., Sun T. T. Immunolocalization of keratin polypeptides in human epidermis using monoclonal antibodies. J Cell Biol. 1982 Nov;95(2 Pt 1):580–588. doi: 10.1083/jcb.95.2.580. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Zaret K. S., Sherman F. Mutationally altered 3' ends of yeast CYC1 mRNA affect transcript stability and translational efficiency. J Mol Biol. 1984 Jul 25;177(1):107–135. doi: 10.1016/0022-2836(84)90060-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Zullo J. N., Cochran B. H., Huang A. S., Stiles C. D. Platelet-derived growth factor and double-stranded ribonucleic acids stimulate expression of the same genes in 3T3 cells. Cell. 1985 Dec;43(3 Pt 2):793–800. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(85)90252-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from The Journal of Cell Biology are provided here courtesy of The Rockefeller University Press

RESOURCES