Skip to main content
PMC home page
Protein Science : A Publication of the Protein Society logoLink to Protein Science : A Publication of the Protein Society
. 1994 Jan;3(1):3–14. doi: 10.1002/pro.5560030102

G proteins: critical control points for transmembrane signals.

E J Neer 1
PMCID: PMC2142477  PMID: 8142895

Abstract

Heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) that are made up of alpha and beta gamma subunits couple many kinds of cell-surface receptors to intracellular effector enzymes or ion channels. Every cell contains several types of receptors, G proteins, and effectors. The specificity with which G protein subunits interact with receptors and effectors defines the range of responses a cell is able to make to an external signal. Thus, the G proteins act as a critical control point that determines whether a signal spreads through several pathways or is focused to a single pathway. In this review, I will summarize some features of the structure and function of mammalian G protein subunits, discuss the role of both alpha and beta gamma subunits in regulation of effectors, the role of the beta gamma subunit in macromolecular assembly, and the mechanisms that might make some responses extremely specific and others rather diffuse.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (5.1 MB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Abou-Samra A. B., Jüppner H., Force T., Freeman M. W., Kong X. F., Schipani E., Urena P., Richards J., Bonventre J. V., Potts J. T., Jr Expression cloning of a common receptor for parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related peptide from rat osteoblast-like cells: a single receptor stimulates intracellular accumulation of both cAMP and inositol trisphosphates and increases intracellular free calcium. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Apr 1;89(7):2732–2736. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.7.2732. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Arshavsky VYu, Bownds M. D. Regulation of deactivation of photoreceptor G protein by its target enzyme and cGMP. Nature. 1992 Jun 4;357(6377):416–417. doi: 10.1038/357416a0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Artemyev N. O., Rarick H. M., Mills J. S., Skiba N. P., Hamm H. E. Sites of interaction between rod G-protein alpha-subunit and cGMP-phosphodiesterase gamma-subunit. Implications for the phosphodiesterase activation mechanism. J Biol Chem. 1992 Dec 15;267(35):25067–25072. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Asano T., Katada T., Gilman A. G., Ross E. M. Activation of the inhibitory GTP-binding protein of adenylate cyclase, Gi, by beta-adrenergic receptors in reconstituted phospholipid vesicles. J Biol Chem. 1984 Aug 10;259(15):9351–9354. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Audigier Y., Journot L., Pantaloni C., Bockaert J. The carboxy-terminal domain of Gs alpha is necessary for anchorage of the activated form in the plasma membrane. J Cell Biol. 1990 Oct;111(4):1427–1435. doi: 10.1083/jcb.111.4.1427. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Backlund P. S., Jr, Simonds W. F., Spiegel A. M. Carboxyl methylation and COOH-terminal processing of the brain G-protein gamma-subunit. J Biol Chem. 1990 Sep 15;265(26):15572–15576. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Berlot C. H., Bourne H. R. Identification of effector-activating residues of Gs alpha. Cell. 1992 Mar 6;68(5):911–922. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90034-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Berstein G., Blank J. L., Jhon D. Y., Exton J. H., Rhee S. G., Ross E. M. Phospholipase C-beta 1 is a GTPase-activating protein for Gq/11, its physiologic regulator. Cell. 1992 Aug 7;70(3):411–418. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90165-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Birnbaumer L., Abramowitz J., Brown A. M. Receptor-effector coupling by G proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1990 May 7;1031(2):163–224. doi: 10.1016/0304-4157(90)90007-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Blank J. L., Brattain K. A., Exton J. H. Activation of cytosolic phosphoinositide phospholipase C by G-protein beta gamma subunits. J Biol Chem. 1992 Nov 15;267(32):23069–23075. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Blank J. L., Ross A. H., Exton J. H. Purification and characterization of two G-proteins that activate the beta 1 isozyme of phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C. Identification as members of the Gq class. J Biol Chem. 1991 Sep 25;266(27):18206–18216. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Bloch D. B., Bonventre J. V., Neer E. J., Seidman J. G. The G protein alpha o subunit alters morphology, growth kinetics, and phospholipid metabolism of somatic cells. Mol Cell Biol. 1989 Dec;9(12):5434–5439. doi: 10.1128/mcb.9.12.5434. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Blumer K. J., Thorner J. Beta and gamma subunits of a yeast guanine nucleotide-binding protein are not essential for membrane association of the alpha subunit but are required for receptor coupling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jun;87(11):4363–4367. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.11.4363. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Bourne H. R., Nicoll R. Molecular machines integrate coincident synaptic signals. Cell. 1993 Jan;72 (Suppl):65–75. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(05)80029-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Bourne H. R., Sanders D. A., McCormick F. The GTPase superfamily: a conserved switch for diverse cell functions. Nature. 1990 Nov 8;348(6297):125–132. doi: 10.1038/348125a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bourne H. R., Sanders D. A., McCormick F. The GTPase superfamily: conserved structure and molecular mechanism. Nature. 1991 Jan 10;349(6305):117–127. doi: 10.1038/349117a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Boyer J. L., Waldo G. L., Harden T. K. Beta gamma-subunit activation of G-protein-regulated phospholipase C. J Biol Chem. 1992 Dec 15;267(35):25451–25456. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Bubis J., Khorana H. G. Sites of interaction in the complex between beta- and gamma-subunits of transducin. J Biol Chem. 1990 Aug 5;265(22):12995–12999. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Bushfield M., Lavan B. E., Houslay M. D. Okadaic acid identifies a phosphorylation/dephosphorylation cycle controlling the inhibitory guanine-nucleotide-binding regulatory protein Gi2. Biochem J. 1991 Mar 1;274(Pt 2):317–321. doi: 10.1042/bj2740317. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Buss J. E., Mumby S. M., Casey P. J., Gilman A. G., Sefton B. M. Myristoylated alpha subunits of guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Nov;84(21):7493–7497. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.21.7493. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Buxton I. L., Brunton L. L. Compartments of cyclic AMP and protein kinase in mammalian cardiomyocytes. J Biol Chem. 1983 Sep 10;258(17):10233–10239. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Cali J. J., Balcueva E. A., Rybalkin I., Robishaw J. D. Selective tissue distribution of G protein gamma subunits, including a new form of the gamma subunits identified by cDNA cloning. J Biol Chem. 1992 Nov 25;267(33):24023–24027. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Camps M., Carozzi A., Schnabel P., Scheer A., Parker P. J., Gierschik P. Isozyme-selective stimulation of phospholipase C-beta 2 by G protein beta gamma-subunits. Nature. 1992 Dec 17;360(6405):684–686. doi: 10.1038/360684a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Carty D. J., Padrell E., Codina J., Birnbaumer L., Hildebrandt J. D., Iyengar R. Distinct guanine nucleotide binding and release properties of the three Gi proteins. J Biol Chem. 1990 Apr 15;265(11):6268–6273. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Casey P. J., Graziano M. P., Gilman A. G. G protein beta gamma subunits from bovine brain and retina: equivalent catalytic support of ADP-ribosylation of alpha subunits by pertussis toxin but differential interactions with Gs alpha. Biochemistry. 1989 Jan 24;28(2):611–616. doi: 10.1021/bi00428a029. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Cerione R. A., Gierschik P., Staniszewski C., Benovic J. L., Codina J., Somers R., Birnbaumer L., Spiegel A. M., Lefkowitz R. J., Caron M. G. Functional differences in the beta gamma complexes of transducin and the inhibitory guanine nucleotide regulatory protein. Biochemistry. 1987 Mar 10;26(5):1485–1491. doi: 10.1021/bi00379a041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Cerione R. A., Regan J. W., Nakata H., Codina J., Benovic J. L., Gierschik P., Somers R. L., Spiegel A. M., Birnbaumer L., Lefkowitz R. J. Functional reconstitution of the alpha 2-adrenergic receptor with guanine nucleotide regulatory proteins in phospholipid vesicles. J Biol Chem. 1986 Mar 15;261(8):3901–3909. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Cerione R. A., Sibley D. R., Codina J., Benovic J. L., Winslow J., Neer E. J., Birnbaumer L., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Reconstitution of a hormone-sensitive adenylate cyclase system. The pure beta-adrenergic receptor and guanine nucleotide regulatory protein confer hormone responsiveness on the resolved catalytic unit. J Biol Chem. 1984 Aug 25;259(16):9979–9982. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Cerione R. A., Staniszewski C., Benovic J. L., Lefkowitz R. J., Caron M. G., Gierschik P., Somers R., Spiegel A. M., Codina J., Birnbaumer L. Specificity of the functional interactions of the beta-adrenergic receptor and rhodopsin with guanine nucleotide regulatory proteins reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles. J Biol Chem. 1985 Feb 10;260(3):1493–1500. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Clapham D. E., Neer E. J. New roles for G-protein beta gamma-dimers in transmembrane signalling. Nature. 1993 Sep 30;365(6445):403–406. doi: 10.1038/365403a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Conklin B. R., Chabre O., Wong Y. H., Federman A. D., Bourne H. R. Recombinant Gq alpha. Mutational activation and coupling to receptors and phospholipase C. J Biol Chem. 1992 Jan 5;267(1):31–34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Conklin B. R., Farfel Z., Lustig K. D., Julius D., Bourne H. R. Substitution of three amino acids switches receptor specificity of Gq alpha to that of Gi alpha. Nature. 1993 May 20;363(6426):274–276. doi: 10.1038/363274a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Daniel-Issakani S., Spiegel A. M., Strulovici B. Lipopolysaccharide response is linked to the GTP binding protein, Gi2, in the promonocytic cell line U937. J Biol Chem. 1989 Dec 5;264(34):20240–20247. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Dell'Acqua M. L., Carroll R. C., Peralta E. G. Transfected m2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors couple to G alpha i2 and G alpha i3 in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Activation and desensitization of the phospholipase C signaling pathway. J Biol Chem. 1993 Mar 15;268(8):5676–5685. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Denker B. M., Neer E. J., Schmidt C. J. Mutagenesis of the amino terminus of the alpha subunit of the G protein Go. In vitro characterization of alpha o beta gamma interactions. J Biol Chem. 1992 Mar 25;267(9):6272–6277. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Denker B. M., Schmidt C. J., Neer E. J. Promotion of the GTP-liganded state of the Go alpha protein by deletion of the C terminus. J Biol Chem. 1992 May 15;267(14):9998–10002. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Dhanasekaran N., Wessling-Resnick M., Kelleher D. J., Johnson G. L., Ruoho A. E. Mapping of the carboxyl terminus within the tertiary structure of transducin's alpha subunit using the heterobifunctional cross-linking reagent, 125I-N-(3-iodo-4-azidophenylpropionamido-S-(2-thiopyridyl) cysteine. J Biol Chem. 1988 Dec 5;263(34):17942–17950. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Dohlman H. G., Thorner J., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Model systems for the study of seven-transmembrane-segment receptors. Annu Rev Biochem. 1991;60:653–688. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.60.070191.003253. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Dratz E. A., Furstenau J. E., Lambert C. G., Thireault D. L., Rarick H., Schepers T., Pakhlevaniants S., Hamm H. E. NMR structure of a receptor-bound G-protein peptide. Nature. 1993 May 20;363(6426):276–281. doi: 10.1038/363276a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Dufau M. L., Horner K. A., Hayashi K., Tsuruhara T., Conn P. M., Catt K. J. Actions of choleragen and gonadotropin in isolated Leydig cells. Functional compartmentalization of the hormone-activated cyclic AMP response. J Biol Chem. 1978 May 25;253(10):3721–3729. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Eason M. G., Kurose H., Holt B. D., Raymond J. R., Liggett S. B. Simultaneous coupling of alpha 2-adrenergic receptors to two G-proteins with opposing effects. Subtype-selective coupling of alpha 2C10, alpha 2C4, and alpha 2C2 adrenergic receptors to Gi and Gs. J Biol Chem. 1992 Aug 5;267(22):15795–15801. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Ercolani L., Stow J. L., Boyle J. F., Holtzman E. J., Lin H., Grove J. R., Ausiello D. A. Membrane localization of the pertussis toxin-sensitive G-protein subunits alpha i-2 and alpha i-3 and expression of a metallothionein-alpha i-2 fusion gene in LLC-PK1 cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jun;87(12):4635–4639. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.12.4635. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Florio V. A., Sternweis P. C. Reconstitution of resolved muscarinic cholinergic receptors with purified GTP-binding proteins. J Biol Chem. 1985 Mar 25;260(6):3477–3483. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Fong H. K., Amatruda T. T., 3rd, Birren B. W., Simon M. I. Distinct forms of the beta subunit of GTP-binding regulatory proteins identified by molecular cloning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Jun;84(11):3792–3796. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.11.3792. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Fung B. K. Characterization of transducin from bovine retinal rod outer segments. I. Separation and reconstitution of the subunits. J Biol Chem. 1983 Sep 10;258(17):10495–10502. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Fung B. K., Nash C. R. Characterization of transducin from bovine retinal rod outer segments. II. Evidence for distinct binding sites and conformational changes revealed by limited proteolysis with trypsin. J Biol Chem. 1983 Sep 10;258(17):10503–10510. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Fung B. K., Yamane H. K., Ota I. M., Clarke S. The gamma subunit of brain G-proteins is methyl esterified at a C-terminal cysteine. FEBS Lett. 1990 Jan 29;260(2):313–317. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(90)80132-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Gao B., Gilman A. G., Robishaw J. D. A second form of the beta subunit of signal-transducing G proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Sep;84(17):6122–6125. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.17.6122. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Gautam N., Baetscher M., Aebersold R., Simon M. I. A G protein gamma subunit shares homology with ras proteins. Science. 1989 May 26;244(4907):971–974. doi: 10.1126/science.2499046. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Gibbs J. B., Schaber M. D., Allard W. J., Sigal I. S., Scolnick E. M. Purification of ras GTPase activating protein from bovine brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Jul;85(14):5026–5030. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.14.5026. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Gilman A. G. G proteins: transducers of receptor-generated signals. Annu Rev Biochem. 1987;56:615–649. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.56.070187.003151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Glatt C. E., Snyder S. H. Cloning and expression of an adenylyl cyclase localized to the corpus striatum. Nature. 1993 Feb 11;361(6412):536–538. doi: 10.1038/361536a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Graf R., Mattera R., Codina J., Estes M. K., Birnbaumer L. A truncated recombinant alpha subunit of Gi3 with a reduced affinity for beta gamma dimers and altered guanosine 5'-3-O-(thio)triphosphate binding. J Biol Chem. 1992 Dec 5;267(34):24307–24314. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Gudermann T., Birnbaumer M., Birnbaumer L. Evidence for dual coupling of the murine luteinizing hormone receptor to adenylyl cyclase and phosphoinositide breakdown and Ca2+ mobilization. Studies with the cloned murine luteinizing hormone receptor expressed in L cells. J Biol Chem. 1992 Mar 5;267(7):4479–4488. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Gutowski S., Smrcka A., Nowak L., Wu D. G., Simon M., Sternweis P. C. Antibodies to the alpha q subfamily of guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory protein alpha subunits attenuate activation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate hydrolysis by hormones. J Biol Chem. 1991 Oct 25;266(30):20519–20524. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Haga K., Haga T. Activation by G protein beta gamma subunits of agonist- or light-dependent phosphorylation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and rhodopsin. J Biol Chem. 1992 Feb 5;267(4):2222–2227. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Hamm H. E., Deretic D., Arendt A., Hargrave P. A., Koenig B., Hofmann K. P. Site of G protein binding to rhodopsin mapped with synthetic peptides from the alpha subunit. Science. 1988 Aug 12;241(4867):832–835. doi: 10.1126/science.3136547. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Hausdorff W. P., Pitcher J. A., Luttrell D. K., Linder M. E., Kurose H., Parsons S. J., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Tyrosine phosphorylation of G protein alpha subunits by pp60c-src. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Jul 1;89(13):5720–5724. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.13.5720. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Hekman M., Holzhöfer A., Gierschik P., Im M. J., Jakobs K. H., Pfeuffer T., Helmreich E. J. Regulation of signal transfer from beta 1-adrenoceptor to adenylate cyclase by beta gamma subunits in a reconstituted system. Eur J Biochem. 1987 Dec 1;169(2):431–439. doi: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1987.tb13630.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Higashijima T., Ferguson K. M., Sternweis P. C., Smigel M. D., Gilman A. G. Effects of Mg2+ and the beta gamma-subunit complex on the interactions of guanine nucleotides with G proteins. J Biol Chem. 1987 Jan 15;262(2):762–766. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Hsu W. H., Rudolph U., Sanford J., Bertrand P., Olate J., Nelson C., Moss L. G., Boyd A. E., Codina J., Birnbaumer L. Molecular cloning of a novel splice variant of the alpha subunit of the mammalian Go protein. J Biol Chem. 1990 Jul 5;265(19):11220–11226. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Huff R. M., Neer E. J. Subunit interactions of native and ADP-ribosylated alpha 39 and alpha 41, two guanine nucleotide-binding proteins from bovine cerebral cortex. J Biol Chem. 1986 Jan 25;261(3):1105–1110. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Hurley J. B., Fong H. K., Teplow D. B., Dreyer W. J., Simon M. I. Isolation and characterization of a cDNA clone for the gamma subunit of bovine retinal transducin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Nov;81(22):6948–6952. doi: 10.1073/pnas.81.22.6948. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Im M. J., Holzhöfer A., Keenan A. K., Gierschik P., Hekman M., Helmreich E. J., Pfeuffer T. The role of beta, gamma-subunits of guanine nucleotide binding proteins in control of a reconstituted signal transmission chain containing purified components of the adenylate cyclase system. J Recept Res. 1987;7(1-4):17–42. doi: 10.3109/10799898709054977. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Ito H., Tung R. T., Sugimoto T., Kobayashi I., Takahashi K., Katada T., Ui M., Kurachi Y. On the mechanism of G protein beta gamma subunit activation of the muscarinic K+ channel in guinea pig atrial cell membrane. Comparison with the ATP-sensitive K+ channel. J Gen Physiol. 1992 Jun;99(6):961–983. doi: 10.1085/jgp.99.6.961. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Iñiguez-Lluhi J. A., Simon M. I., Robishaw J. D., Gilman A. G. G protein beta gamma subunits synthesized in Sf9 cells. Functional characterization and the significance of prenylation of gamma. J Biol Chem. 1992 Nov 15;267(32):23409–23417. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Jelsema C. L., Axelrod J. Stimulation of phospholipase A2 activity in bovine rod outer segments by the beta gamma subunits of transducin and its inhibition by the alpha subunit. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Jun;84(11):3623–3627. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.11.3623. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Jones T. L., Simonds W. F., Merendino J. J., Jr, Brann M. R., Spiegel A. M. Myristoylation of an inhibitory GTP-binding protein alpha subunit is essential for its membrane attachment. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jan;87(2):568–572. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.2.568. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Juhnn Y. S., Jones T. L., Spiegel A. M. Amino- and carboxy-terminal deletion mutants of Gs alpha are localized to the particulate fraction of transfected COS cells. J Cell Biol. 1992 Nov;119(3):523–530. doi: 10.1083/jcb.119.3.523. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Jurnak F. Structure of the GDP domain of EF-Tu and location of the amino acids homologous to ras oncogene proteins. Science. 1985 Oct 4;230(4721):32–36. doi: 10.1126/science.3898365. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Katada T., Kusakabe K., Oinuma M., Ui M. A novel mechanism for the inhibition of adenylate cyclase via inhibitory GTP-binding proteins. Calmodulin-dependent inhibition of the cyclase catalyst by the beta gamma-subunits of GTP-binding proteins. J Biol Chem. 1987 Sep 5;262(25):11897–11900. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Katz A., Wu D., Simon M. I. Subunits beta gamma of heterotrimeric G protein activate beta 2 isoform of phospholipase C. Nature. 1992 Dec 17;360(6405):686–689. doi: 10.1038/360686a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Kaziro Y., Itoh H., Kozasa T., Nakafuku M., Satoh T. Structure and function of signal-transducing GTP-binding proteins. Annu Rev Biochem. 1991;60:349–400. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.60.070191.002025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Kelleher D. J., Johnson G. L. Transducin inhibition of light-dependent rhodopsin phosphorylation: evidence for beta gamma subunit interaction with rhodopsin. Mol Pharmacol. 1988 Oct;34(4):452–460. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Kent R. S., De Lean A., Lefkowitz R. J. A quantitative analysis of beta-adrenergic receptor interactions: resolution of high and low affinity states of the receptor by computer modeling of ligand binding data. Mol Pharmacol. 1980 Jan;17(1):14–23. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Kim D., Lewis D. L., Graziadei L., Neer E. J., Bar-Sagi D., Clapham D. E. G-protein beta gamma-subunits activate the cardiac muscarinic K+-channel via phospholipase A2. Nature. 1989 Feb 9;337(6207):557–560. doi: 10.1038/337557a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Kim S. Y., Ang S. L., Bloch D. B., Bloch K. D., Kawahara Y., Tolman C., Lee R., Seidman J. G., Neer E. J. Identification of cDNA encoding an additional alpha subunit of a human GTP-binding protein: expression of three alpha i subtypes in human tissues and cell lines. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Jun;85(12):4153–4157. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.12.4153. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Kleuss C., Hescheler J., Ewel C., Rosenthal W., Schultz G., Wittig B. Assignment of G-protein subtypes to specific receptors inducing inhibition of calcium currents. Nature. 1991 Sep 5;353(6339):43–48. doi: 10.1038/353043a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Kleuss C., Scherübl H., Hescheler J., Schultz G., Wittig B. Selectivity in signal transduction determined by gamma subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins. Science. 1993 Feb 5;259(5096):832–834. doi: 10.1126/science.8094261. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Koch C. A., Anderson D., Moran M. F., Ellis C., Pawson T. SH2 and SH3 domains: elements that control interactions of cytoplasmic signaling proteins. Science. 1991 May 3;252(5006):668–674. doi: 10.1126/science.1708916. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Kokame K., Fukada Y., Yoshizawa T., Takao T., Shimonishi Y. Lipid modification at the N terminus of photoreceptor G-protein alpha-subunit. Nature. 1992 Oct 22;359(6397):749–752. doi: 10.1038/359749a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Krupinski J., Rajaram R., Lakonishok M., Benovic J. L., Cerione R. A. Insulin-dependent phosphorylation of GTP-binding proteins in phospholipid vesicles. J Biol Chem. 1988 Sep 5;263(25):12333–12341. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Kurachi Y., Ito H., Sugimoto T., Katada T., Ui M. Activation of atrial muscarinic K+ channels by low concentrations of beta gamma subunits of rat brain G protein. Pflugers Arch. 1989 Jan;413(3):325–327. doi: 10.1007/BF00583550. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Kurachi Y., Ito H., Sugimoto T., Shimizu T., Miki I., Ui M. Arachidonic acid metabolites as intracellular modulators of the G protein-gated cardiac K+ channel. Nature. 1989 Feb 9;337(6207):555–557. doi: 10.1038/337555a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Lai R. K., Perez-Sala D., Cañada F. J., Rando R. R. The gamma subunit of transducin is farnesylated. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Oct;87(19):7673–7677. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.19.7673. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Lechleiter J., Girard S., Clapham D., Peralta E. Subcellular patterns of calcium release determined by G protein-specific residues of muscarinic receptors. Nature. 1991 Apr 11;350(6318):505–508. doi: 10.1038/350505a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Lee E., Taussig R., Gilman A. G. The G226A mutant of Gs alpha highlights the requirement for dissociation of G protein subunits. J Biol Chem. 1992 Jan 15;267(2):1212–1218. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Lee R. H., Ting T. D., Lieberman B. S., Tobias D. E., Lolley R. N., Ho Y. K. Regulation of retinal cGMP cascade by phosducin in bovine rod photoreceptor cells. Interaction of phosducin and transducin. J Biol Chem. 1992 Dec 15;267(35):25104–25112. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Levine M. A., Smallwood P. M., Moen P. T., Jr, Helman L. J., Ahn T. G. Molecular cloning of beta 3 subunit, a third form of the G protein beta-subunit polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Mar;87(6):2329–2333. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.6.2329. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Linder M. E., Ewald D. A., Miller R. J., Gilman A. G. Purification and characterization of Go alpha and three types of Gi alpha after expression in Escherichia coli. J Biol Chem. 1990 May 15;265(14):8243–8251. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Linder M. E., Middleton P., Hepler J. R., Taussig R., Gilman A. G., Mumby S. M. Lipid modifications of G proteins: alpha subunits are palmitoylated. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Apr 15;90(8):3675–3679. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.8.3675. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Linder M. E., Pang I. H., Duronio R. J., Gordon J. I., Sternweis P. C., Gilman A. G. Lipid modifications of G protein subunits. Myristoylation of Go alpha increases its affinity for beta gamma. J Biol Chem. 1991 Mar 5;266(7):4654–4659. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Logothetis D. E., Kurachi Y., Galper J., Neer E. J., Clapham D. E. The beta gamma subunits of GTP-binding proteins activate the muscarinic K+ channel in heart. Nature. 1987 Jan 22;325(6102):321–326. doi: 10.1038/325321a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Lott J. S., Ryba N. J., Pottinger J. D., Keen J. N., Carne A., Findlay J. B. The gamma-subunit of the principal G-protein from squid (Loligo forbesi) photoreceptors contains a novel N-terminal sequence. FEBS Lett. 1992 Nov 9;312(2-3):241–244. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(92)80943-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Lounsbury K. M., Casey P. J., Brass L. F., Manning D. R. Phosphorylation of Gz in human platelets. Selectivity and site of modification. J Biol Chem. 1991 Nov 15;266(32):22051–22056. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Lupas A. N., Lupas J. M., Stock J. B. Do G protein subunits associate via a three-stranded coiled coil? FEBS Lett. 1992 Dec 14;314(2):105–108. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(92)80952-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Maltese W. A., Robishaw J. D. Isoprenylation of C-terminal cysteine in a G-protein gamma subunit. J Biol Chem. 1990 Oct 25;265(30):18071–18074. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Mattera R., Codina J., Sekura R. D., Birnbaumer L. Guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) reduces ADP-ribosylation of the inhibitory guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory protein of adenylyl cyclase (Ni) by pertussis toxin without causing dissociation of the subunits of Ni. Evidence of existence of heterotrimeric pt+ and pt- conformations of Ni. J Biol Chem. 1987 Aug 15;262(23):11247–11251. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. May D. C., Ross E. M., Gilman A. G., Smigel M. D. Reconstitution of catecholamine-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity using three purified proteins. J Biol Chem. 1985 Dec 15;260(29):15829–15833. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Mazzoni M. R., Hamm H. E. Effect of monoclonal antibody binding on alpha-beta gamma subunit interactions in the rod outer segment G protein, Gt. Biochemistry. 1989 Dec 12;28(25):9873–9880. doi: 10.1021/bi00451a047. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Milburn M. V., Tong L., deVos A. M., Brünger A., Yamaizumi Z., Nishimura S., Kim S. H. Molecular switch for signal transduction: structural differences between active and inactive forms of protooncogenic ras proteins. Science. 1990 Feb 23;247(4945):939–945. doi: 10.1126/science.2406906. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Miller R. T., Masters S. B., Sullivan K. A., Beiderman B., Bourne H. R. A mutation that prevents GTP-dependent activation of the alpha chain of Gs. Nature. 1988 Aug 25;334(6184):712–715. doi: 10.1038/334712a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Mortensen R. M., Zubiaur M., Neer E. J., Seidman J. G. Embryonic stem cells lacking a functional inhibitory G-protein subunit (alpha i2) produced by gene targeting of both alleles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Aug 15;88(16):7036–7040. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.16.7036. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Mumby S. M., Casey P. J., Gilman A. G., Gutowski S., Sternweis P. C. G protein gamma subunits contain a 20-carbon isoprenoid. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Aug;87(15):5873–5877. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.15.5873. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Mumby S. M., Heukeroth R. O., Gordon J. I., Gilman A. G. G-protein alpha-subunit expression, myristoylation, and membrane association in COS cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jan;87(2):728–732. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.2.728. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Munshi R., Pang I. H., Sternweis P. C., Linden J. A1 adenosine receptors of bovine brain couple to guanine nucleotide-binding proteins Gi1, Gi2, and Go. J Biol Chem. 1991 Nov 25;266(33):22285–22289. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Muntz K. H., Sternweis P. C., Gilman A. G., Mumby S. M. Influence of gamma subunit prenylation on association of guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins with membranes. Mol Biol Cell. 1992 Jan;3(1):49–61. doi: 10.1091/mbc.3.1.49. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Navon S. E., Fung B. K. Characterization of transducin from bovine retinal rod outer segments. Use of monoclonal antibodies to probe the structure and function of the subunit. J Biol Chem. 1988 Jan 5;263(1):489–496. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Neer E. J., Clapham D. E. Roles of G protein subunits in transmembrane signalling. Nature. 1988 May 12;333(6169):129–134. doi: 10.1038/333129a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Neer E. J., Pulsifer L., Wolf L. G. The amino terminus of G protein alpha subunits is required for interaction with beta gamma. J Biol Chem. 1988 Jun 25;263(18):8996–8970. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Osawa S., Dhanasekaran N., Woon C. W., Johnson G. L. G alpha i-G alpha s chimeras define the function of alpha chain domains in control of G protein activation and beta gamma subunit complex interactions. Cell. 1990 Nov 16;63(4):697–706. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90136-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Park D., Jhon D. Y., Lee C. W., Ryu S. H., Rhee S. G. Removal of the carboxyl-terminal region of phospholipase C-beta 1 by calpain abolishes activation by G alpha q. J Biol Chem. 1993 Feb 15;268(5):3710–3714. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Phillips W. J., Wong S. C., Cerione R. A. Rhodopsin/transducin interactions. II. Influence of the transducin-beta gamma subunit complex on the coupling of the transducin-alpha subunit to rhodopsin. J Biol Chem. 1992 Aug 25;267(24):17040–17046. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Pitcher J. A., Inglese J., Higgins J. B., Arriza J. L., Casey P. J., Kim C., Benovic J. L., Kwatra M. M., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Role of beta gamma subunits of G proteins in targeting the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase to membrane-bound receptors. Science. 1992 Aug 28;257(5074):1264–1267. doi: 10.1126/science.1325672. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Pronin A. N., Gautam N. Interaction between G-protein beta and gamma subunit types is selective. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Jul 1;89(13):6220–6224. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.13.6220. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Péraldi S., Nguyen Than Dao B., Brabet P., Homburger V., Rouot B., Toutant M., Bouille C., Assenmacher I., Bockaert J., Gabrion J. Apical localization of the alpha subunit of GTP-binding protein Go in choroidal and ciliated ependymocytes. J Neurosci. 1989 Mar;9(3):806–814. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.09-03-00806.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Rarick H. M., Artemyev N. O., Hamm H. E. A site on rod G protein alpha subunit that mediates effector activation. Science. 1992 May 15;256(5059):1031–1033. doi: 10.1126/science.1317058. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Rhee S. G., Choi K. D. Regulation of inositol phospholipid-specific phospholipase C isozymes. J Biol Chem. 1992 Jun 25;267(18):12393–12396. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Ross E. M. Signal sorting and amplification through G protein-coupled receptors. Neuron. 1989 Aug;3(2):141–152. doi: 10.1016/0896-6273(89)90027-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Sanford J., Codina J., Birnbaumer L. Gamma-subunits of G proteins, but not their alpha- or beta-subunits, are polyisoprenylated. Studies on post-translational modifications using in vitro translation with rabbit reticulocyte lysates. J Biol Chem. 1991 May 25;266(15):9570–9579. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Savarese T. M., Fraser C. M. In vitro mutagenesis and the search for structure-function relationships among G protein-coupled receptors. Biochem J. 1992 Apr 1;283(Pt 1):1–19. doi: 10.1042/bj2830001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Schlichting I., Almo S. C., Rapp G., Wilson K., Petratos K., Lentfer A., Wittinghofer A., Kabsch W., Pai E. F., Petsko G. A. Time-resolved X-ray crystallographic study of the conformational change in Ha-Ras p21 protein on GTP hydrolysis. Nature. 1990 May 24;345(6273):309–315. doi: 10.1038/345309a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Schmidt C. J., Neer E. J. In vitro synthesis of G protein beta gamma dimers. J Biol Chem. 1991 Mar 5;266(7):4538–4544. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Schmidt C. J., Thomas T. C., Levine M. A., Neer E. J. Specificity of G protein beta and gamma subunit interactions. J Biol Chem. 1992 Jul 15;267(20):13807–13810. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Senogles S. E., Spiegel A. M., Padrell E., Iyengar R., Caron M. G. Specificity of receptor-G protein interactions. Discrimination of Gi subtypes by the D2 dopamine receptor in a reconstituted system. J Biol Chem. 1990 Mar 15;265(8):4507–4514. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Sibley D. R., Benovic J. L., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Regulation of transmembrane signaling by receptor phosphorylation. Cell. 1987 Mar 27;48(6):913–922. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90700-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Simon M. I., Strathmann M. P., Gautam N. Diversity of G proteins in signal transduction. Science. 1991 May 10;252(5007):802–808. doi: 10.1126/science.1902986. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Simonds W. F., Butrynski J. E., Gautam N., Unson C. G., Spiegel A. M. G-protein beta gamma dimers. Membrane targeting requires subunit coexpression and intact gamma C-A-A-X domain. J Biol Chem. 1991 Mar 25;266(9):5363–5366. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Simonds W. F., Collins R. M., Spiegel A. M., Brann M. R. Membrane attachment of recombinant G-protein alpha-subunits in excess of beta gamma subunits in a eukaryotic expression system. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1989 Oct 16;164(1):46–53. doi: 10.1016/0006-291x(89)91680-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Simonds W. F., Goldsmith P. K., Codina J., Unson C. G., Spiegel A. M. Gi2 mediates alpha 2-adrenergic inhibition of adenylyl cyclase in platelet membranes: in situ identification with G alpha C-terminal antibodies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Oct;86(20):7809–7813. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.20.7809. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Smrcka A. V., Sternweis P. C. Regulation of purified subtypes of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C beta by G protein alpha and beta gamma subunits. J Biol Chem. 1993 May 5;268(13):9667–9674. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Spiegel A. M., Shenker A., Weinstein L. S. Receptor-effector coupling by G proteins: implications for normal and abnormal signal transduction. Endocr Rev. 1992 Aug;13(3):536–565. doi: 10.1210/edrv-13-3-536. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Strasser R. H., Benovic J. L., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Beta-agonist- and prostaglandin E1-induced translocation of the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase: evidence that the kinase may act on multiple adenylate cyclase-coupled receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Sep;83(17):6362–6366. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.17.6362. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Strathmann M., Wilkie T. M., Simon M. I. Alternative splicing produces transcripts encoding two forms of the alpha subunit of GTP-binding protein Go. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Sep;87(17):6477–6481. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.17.6477. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Strittmatter S. M., Valenzuela D., Kennedy T. E., Neer E. J., Fishman M. C. G0 is a major growth cone protein subject to regulation by GAP-43. Nature. 1990 Apr 26;344(6269):836–841. doi: 10.1038/344836a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Strittmatter S. M., Valenzuela D., Sudo Y., Linder M. E., Fishman M. C. An intracellular guanine nucleotide release protein for G0. GAP-43 stimulates isolated alpha subunits by a novel mechanism. J Biol Chem. 1991 Nov 25;266(33):22465–22471. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Stryer L., Bourne H. R. G proteins: a family of signal transducers. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1986;2:391–419. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.02.110186.002135. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Sullivan K. A., Miller R. T., Masters S. B., Beiderman B., Heideman W., Bourne H. R. Identification of receptor contact site involved in receptor-G protein coupling. Nature. 1987 Dec 24;330(6150):758–760. doi: 10.1038/330758a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Tang W. J., Gilman A. G. Adenylyl cyclases. Cell. 1992 Sep 18;70(6):869–872. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90236-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Tang W. J., Gilman A. G. Type-specific regulation of adenylyl cyclase by G protein beta gamma subunits. Science. 1991 Dec 6;254(5037):1500–1503. doi: 10.1126/science.1962211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Taussig R., Quarmby L. M., Gilman A. G. Regulation of purified type I and type II adenylylcyclases by G protein beta gamma subunits. J Biol Chem. 1993 Jan 5;268(1):9–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Taylor S. J., Chae H. Z., Rhee S. G., Exton J. H. Activation of the beta 1 isozyme of phospholipase C by alpha subunits of the Gq class of G proteins. Nature. 1991 Apr 11;350(6318):516–518. doi: 10.1038/350516a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Trahey M., McCormick F. A cytoplasmic protein stimulates normal N-ras p21 GTPase, but does not affect oncogenic mutants. Science. 1987 Oct 23;238(4826):542–545. doi: 10.1126/science.2821624. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. West R. E., Jr, Moss J., Vaughan M., Liu T., Liu T. Y. Pertussis toxin-catalyzed ADP-ribosylation of transducin. Cysteine 347 is the ADP-ribose acceptor site. J Biol Chem. 1985 Nov 25;260(27):14428–14430. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Whiteway M., Hougan L., Dignard D., Thomas D. Y., Bell L., Saari G. C., Grant F. J., O'Hara P., MacKay V. L. The STE4 and STE18 genes of yeast encode potential beta and gamma subunits of the mating factor receptor-coupled G protein. Cell. 1989 Feb 10;56(3):467–477. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90249-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Wildman D. E., Tamir H., Leberer E., Northup J. K., Dennis M. Prenyl modification of guanine nucleotide regulatory protein gamma 2 subunits is not required for interaction with the transducin alpha subunit or rhodopsin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Feb 1;90(3):794–798. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.3.794. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Wu D., Jiang H., Katz A., Simon M. I. Identification of critical regions on phospholipase C-beta 1 required for activation by G-proteins. J Biol Chem. 1993 Feb 15;268(5):3704–3709. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. Wu D., Katz A., Simon M. I. Activation of phospholipase C beta 2 by the alpha and beta gamma subunits of trimeric GTP-binding protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Jun 1;90(11):5297–5301. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.11.5297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  149. Yamane H. K., Farnsworth C. C., Xie H. Y., Howald W., Fung B. K., Clarke S., Gelb M. H., Glomset J. A. Brain G protein gamma subunits contain an all-trans-geranylgeranylcysteine methyl ester at their carboxyl termini. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Aug;87(15):5868–5872. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.15.5868. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Yatani A., Codina J., Brown A. M., Birnbaumer L. Direct activation of mammalian atrial muscarinic potassium channels by GTP regulatory protein Gk. Science. 1987 Jan 9;235(4785):207–211. doi: 10.1126/science.2432660. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. Yatani A., Mattera R., Codina J., Graf R., Okabe K., Padrell E., Iyengar R., Brown A. M., Birnbaumer L. The G protein-gated atrial K+ channel is stimulated by three distinct Gi alpha-subunits. Nature. 1988 Dec 15;336(6200):680–682. doi: 10.1038/336680a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  152. Yatsunami K., Pandya B. V., Oprian D. D., Khorana H. G. cDNA-derived amino acid sequence of the gamma subunit of GTPase from bovine rod outer segments. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985 Apr;82(7):1936–1940. doi: 10.1073/pnas.82.7.1936. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  153. Yi F., Denker B. M., Neer E. J. Structural and functional studies of cross-linked Go protein subunits. J Biol Chem. 1991 Feb 25;266(6):3900–3906. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Zubiaur M., Neer E. J. Nerve growth factor changes G protein levels and localization in PC12 cells. J Neurosci Res. 1993 Jun 1;35(2):207–217. doi: 10.1002/jnr.490350212. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  155. van der Voorn L., Ploegh H. L. The WD-40 repeat. FEBS Lett. 1992 Jul 28;307(2):131–134. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(92)80751-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. von Weizsäcker E., Strathmann M. P., Simon M. I. Diversity among the beta subunits of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins: characterization of a novel beta-subunit cDNA. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1992 Feb 28;183(1):350–356. doi: 10.1016/0006-291x(92)91650-f. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Protein Science : A Publication of the Protein Society are provided here courtesy of The Protein Society

RESOURCES