Skip to main content
Immunology logoLink to Immunology
. 2000 Sep;101(1):11–18. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.2000.00108.x

Pollution and the immune response: atopic diseases – are we too dirty or too clean?

D Diaz-Sanchez 1
PMCID: PMC2327046  PMID: 11012748

Introduction

The effect of pollutants on the immune system has filled tomes and is almost always controversial whether the topic is disinfectants in drinking water or particulates and lung cancer. Even whether outdoor and indoor air quality is improving or declining has been a source of considerable investigation, consultation and often litigation. Few areas, however, yield so much uncertainty and debate as the role of airborne pollutants in atopy.

Atopy is defined as an immunoglobulin E- (IgE) mediated allergic response to environmental antigens and can be manifested as rhinitis, asthma or atopic dermatitis. While there is some debate over whether there has been a real increase in atopy over the last decades, it is indisputable that there has been a dramatic change over the last 200 years. While isolated cases of anaphylaxis had been noted before, allergies were unheard of until the early 19th century. Only 54 years after the first description of hay fever in England in 1819, it was considered an epidemic and a clear association with urbanization had been reported.1

What aspect of urbanization is involved has been much debated. There has been much discussion amongst both experimental immunologists and epidemiologists over whether pollutants are responsible for increased allergic sensitization and/or severity.2,3 In the last few years new studies have supported an alternative explanation, namely the decline in infectious diseases in industrialized countries.4,5 Does this ‘hygiene theory’ toll the death knell for the ‘pollution theory’? In this review I will argue that there is a compelling case to be made for both theories and that even this is not the entire picture.

The hygiene theory

Some studies have linked the rise of atopy with an increase in living standards and immunization programs in industrialised countries.6,7 This has led to the theory that, while the normal response to childhood infections is the deviation of the immune system to a T helper (Th) 1-type cytokine response, the absence of these infections in ‘Western’ society has resulted in the predominance of a Th2-type response.5,8,9 The Th2 cytokine environment is known to promote IgE production and atopic diseases.10 In support of this theory, some epidemiological studies have shown an inverse association between the risk of atopy and sibling number,11 birth order,12 and nursery school attendance,13 all factors that will increase the risk of infections in infancy. Perhaps the most cited evidence has come from a study looking at Japanese schoolchildren vaccinated against Mycobacterium tuberculosis.14 There was an inverse relation between tuberculin responses and asthma, rhinitis and eczema. Additionally, serum IgE levels, both total and allergen-specific, were also lower in children with positive tuberculin responses.14 While some studies looking at measles15 or hepatitis A virus16 infections have supported the conclusion that infections protect against atopy, others have shown an association between asthma or allergic disease and M. tuberculosis infection only in women but not in men17 and yet others have failed to show similar associations between atopy and measles18 or bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccination.19 An alternative explanation has been proposed that mycobacteria do not lower the risk of atopy, but that atopics have an impaired ability to make a Th1 response to mycobacteria.20 Yet, in experimental animal models, immunization with mycobacteria or other infectious agents will result in the promotion of a Th1 response and the inhibition of Th2 responses.21,22

As a cautionary note, it should be mentioned that, in the UK and the USA the greatest increase in atopy prevalence has come not in the last decades but in the years between 1830 and 1900. Deaths from infectious diseases have declined markedly in these countries only during the 20th century. By the turn of the century improvements in hygiene and immunizations regime were still limited and the life expectancy was around 47 years, only 20 years more than the Greco–Roman era, 2000 years earlier.23 In 1900, 30·4% of all deaths in the USA occurred among children aged less than 5 years; in 1997, that percentage was only 1·4%.24 There is broad agreement that the increased prevalence of atopy is due to the skewing of the immune system to a Th2 environment. While the ‘hygiene theory’ is an attractive explanation, other possibilities remain. Some have argued that the shift is due to diets,25,26 others that it is because of the adjuvants used in immunizations,27 others that high growth rates in successful pregnancies select for a Th2-type environment,28 and, as we shall see, certain pollutants can interact with allergen to promote Th2 cytokines.

POLLUTION and EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES

The most cited argument against a role for pollutants in asthma and allergy onset is the comparative studies between the former nations of the now reunited Germany.29,30 Despite increased particles and SO2 levels in East Germany, allergic airway disease was significantly higher in West Germany. Additionally, prevalence of positive skin-prick tests (atopy) in an East German city (Leipzig) were half that of one in West Germany (Munich). Similar results have also been observed in comparisons between Sweden and Estonia.31 Yet, these data are not as clear cut as it appears. Even within these studies, within each country, hay fever, atopy and asthma were all higher in industrialized polluted cities than in rural or non-industrial towns. This has led some to conclude that air pollution is an important risk factor but that some undefined feature of Western lifestyle may be even more so.32 Indeed, since reunification, the prevalence of hay fever and atopy seems to have increased in the former socialist states33 presumably because they are adopting a more ‘Westernized’ lifestyle. Subsequent studies have compared two polluted counties in East Germany with a neighbouring country without any source of industrial pollution, where lifestyles (including family size and infection rates) are similar in all three counties.34 Again, children in the polluted counties had higher sensitization rates and specific IgE levels.

It is important to note that there seem to be distinctions between pollutants. Certain dusts and SO2 associate strongly with infections and irritant responses, after controlling for as many lifestyle covariates as possible.35 Conversely, parameters of allergic sensitization correlate significantly with combustion sources such as automobile exhaust. This agrees with epidemiological studies that have shown that in Japan, people living on busy roads lined with cedar trees have higher allergic cedar pollinosis than residents living on similar streets with much less traffic.36 Similarly, allergic rhinitis is heavier in residential areas with heavy truck traffic37 and some reports suggest that allergic symptoms correlate with the distance of residences to roads with heavy traffic.38

Diesel exhaust particles (dep) as model pollutant

The studies cited above have sparked renewed focus on the role of fossil-fuel combustion products on allergic inflammation. Because of their universal nature, indoor concentrations of these products are often equal to or exceed that found in ambient outdoor air. In particular, much of the work in the last decade has concerned diesel exhaust particles (DEP) and the xenobiotic compounds they contain. Consisting of an inert carbon core containing unburned fuel petrochemicals, DEP have been used as model pollutants to understand the mechanisms involved. Many of the chemicals they contain are also present in other pollutants.39 For example, the prototypic polyaromatic hydrocarbon benzo(a)pyrene found in DEP,40 is prominent in second-hand smoke, a risk factor for allergic sensitization identified in dozens of epidemiological studies.41,42 In cities such as Los Angeles, 40% of the 10-μm particles (PM10) in the atmosphere are derived from diesel vehicle engines. This has become an area of increasing public health concern as diesel engines have come to dominate the trucking industry in recent decades; for example, 88% of all heavy-duty trucks (> 26 000 lb.) now run on diesel fuel.43 The rest of this review will use the example of DEP (as this is the best characterized and most studied pollutant of the last few years) to focus primarily on the changes that a pollutant can have on the immune response and especially allergic reactions.

The immunoglobulin response

Much of the experimental work on pollution and atopy has centred on the ability to alter immunoglobulin production. In particular IgE regulation has been widely studied owing to the strong association of asthma with serum IgE levels and its central role in both the early and late phase of the mucosal response to allergens and the induction of allergic inflammation in humans. In 1986, Muranaka et al. published the first demonstration that DEP could have an adjuvant activity.44 Instillation of ovalbumin (OA) or Japanese cedar pollen (JCP) mixed with DEP and injected intraperitoneally enhanced the antigen-specific IgE antibody response. Shortly after Takafuji et al. demonstrated an identical effect if an intranasal route of administration was used.45 Since then, these studies have been validated many times and DEP shown to have similar effects if administered intratracheally or by aerosilization.4648

Other studies have focused on IgG1. In mice and other animal models, IgG1 can also cause anaphylactic reactions and is sometimes the major reaginic antibody (e.g. in the guinea pig49) and may be important in the development of allergic airway inflammation.50 There is no homologue to IgG1 in humans. Some studies using murine models have failed to show adjuvant activity for IgE but can show DEP can enhance IgG1 responses to allergen.48,51 These differences probably result from differences in doses, route of administration, murine strains and exposure duration. The ability to modulate immunoglobulin production is not confined to DEP. Indeed the ability of both SO2 and ozone to enhance allergen-induced anaphylactic responses in mice was reported 20 years ago.52 Ozone can also increase the number of IgE-containing cells in the lung following allergen exposure.53 Guinea pig exposure to SO2 increases anti-OA IgG1 in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. NO2 exposure can augment local IgE (as well as IgA and IgG) to dust-mite antigen in rats.54 Second-hand tobacco smoke, a pollutant which is often implicated as a risk factor for atopy, has many of the characteristics of DEP (e.g. a particulate nature) and shares many chemicals in common, has recently also been shown to increase IgE to OA in a mouse model.55

A major advantage of using DEP as a model pollutant has been the ease by which animal models have been transferred into human studies. These studies have categorically shown the potential of DEP to induce and exacerbate IgE responses in vivo in the human upper respiratory tract.56 Human atopic volunteers were sprayed intranasally with DEP, with doses ranging up to 0·15 mg into each nostril.57 Although this dose may seem high, in certain occupational or everyday settings (such as waiting at a bus stop) exposure to DEP can be much higher. DEP exposure resulted in a dose-response associated increase in total IgE production and ε mRNA in nasal lavage fluid.57 Four days following DEP challenge, total IgE proteins levels found in nasal washes were up to 10 times greater than baseline values, while there was a 25-fold increase in the levels of ε mRNA in cells recovered from the nasal lavage fluid. By day 7, IgE levels returned to baseline. This response was isotype specific as levels of total nasal IgG, IgA, IgM were unchanged by DEP provocation. Cells recovered from nasal washes were used to enumerate immunoglobulin-secreting cells. After DEP challenge the number of IgE-producing cells increased from less than 1 in 2000 000 to more than 1 in 1000 000 of total cells. However, the number of IgA-secreting cells remained unchanged after DEP challenge.57 Thus DEP seems unlike other pollutants such as NO2 or SO2, which do not produce IgE in the absence of an allergen.58

Subsequent studies have investigated the ability of DEP to act as an adjuvant in humans in vivo to a co-administered antigen.59 Ragweed-sensitive subjects were challenged with DEP, ragweed allergen (Amb a I) or both simultaneously. Nasal washes were performed at different days after challenge. At the peak of the response, ragweed-specific IgE was 16-fold higher following ragweed plus DEP challenge compared with ragweed alone. Once again, there was no change in any other immunoglobulin isotype except IgG4, suggesting that DEP acts in an isotype-specific manner. Thus for both total and ragweed-specific responses, only IgE and IgG4 levels were boosted by DEP. This may be because both IgG4 and IgE production are under very similar, although not identical, controls.60

A popular explanation for the adjuvancy effect of DEP is the physical interaction between pollutants and pollen grains. It has been suggested that pollen from trees growing in cities are more allergenic.61 Furthermore, purified grass pollen allergen molecules bind to DEP when incubated in vitro.62 Thus it is possible that DEP may play a passive role, acting as a carrier that transports allergens into the airway. Although this may be the case in some instances, it is probably not the principle mechanism in most of the studies presented here. Enhanced IgE production in animals can occur when injected with DEP at sites remote from the respiratory tract. Carbon Black (elemental carbon) can also increase specific IgE production in mice and enhance the local inflammatory responses in cells of the draining lymph node, in mice challenged by OA injection into the foot pad.63 However, the responses induced by Carbon Black are less than that seen with DEP.63 In addition, the chemicals from DEP also can enhance IgE production; Pyrene, a polyaromatic hydrocarbon present in DEP, tobacco smoke and many other combustion products, can induce IgE production in mice injected intraperitoneally with OA.64 The soluble organic fraction extracted from DEP also increased the IgE production of B cells co-stimulated with interleukin (IL) -4 and anti-CD40 mAb in vitro.65 Phenanthrene, a principle polyaromatic hydrocarbon in DEP and also found in tobacco smoke, had similar effects.65

THE TH1/TH2 RESPONSE

A more plausible explanation for the changes in IgE induced by pollutants is that they enhance on-going IgE production directly by acting on B cells, or indirectly by altering the local environment to one conducive for allergic inflammation, i.e. induce a Th2 cytokine mileau. A likely mechanism for this would be the induction of IL-4. In humans and mice IL-4 and IL-13 can initiate germline transcription and thereby in association with CD40 or CD58 ligation direct immunoglobulin class switching of B cells to IgE.6669 In addition, Th2 differentiation is critically dependent on the presence of IL-4.70 Thus the induction of IL-4 by pollutants should result in increased IgE production and the initiation of a Th2 response.

Several pollutants have indeed been shown to enhance IL-4 production to allergen in vitro and in both animal and human in vivo models. Following intratracheal instillation of DEP with OA, IL-4 production in mediastinal lymph nodes was eight times greater than in mice injected with OA alone.46 DEP plus JCP induced twofold higher levels than JCP alone in the same model. Similarly, the same group demonstrated that intranasal challenge with DEP and allergen induced increased IL-4 responses in cervical lymph node cells compared with allergen alone.71 Subsequent studies demonstrated that DEP could have the same effects on IL-4 when used in a more physiologically relevant model that of administration through inhalation.47 Similarly, spleen lymphocytes derived from mice treated with pyrene during house-dust-mite antigen sensitization secrete increased IL-4 upon antigen stimulation.72 Human studies show that intranasal challenge of DEP alone can augment expression of many cytokines in a non-specific manner.73 Therefore, levels of mRNA for interferon-γ (IFN-γ), IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-13 all increased in cells recovered from nasal washes. IL-4 protein levels, which are normally too low to be detected, could be detected in washes performed 18 hr after DEP challenge.73

In 1997 two studies (one in humans and one in mice) demonstrated the formation of an enhanced Th2 response following challenge with DEP and allergen.51,59 In the first, ragweed-allergic subjects were challenged nasally with ragweed allergen, DEP, or both. Prior to challenge the only cytokines in nasal cells for which baseline levels of mRNA were detectable were IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-13. Following challenge with ragweed alone, only low and inconsistent changes in cytokine expression occurred.59 In contrast, challenge with both DEP and allergen resulted in significantly increased expression of IL-4, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-13, but decreased expression of the Th1 cytokine, IFN-γ. In mice intratracheally inoculated for 6 weeks, DEP with OA induced an eightfold increase in IL-5 protein in lung tissue and BAL, compared with OA-alone-treated mice.51 Interleukin-5 is a hallmark Th2 cytokine, central to allergic asthma. While local levels of IL-2 and granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) also increased, it is significant that levels of IFN-γ were unchanged. These studies imply that the combination of DEP plus allergen selects against a Th1 profile and induces the formation a Th2-type cytokine response. In these studies, the induction of Th2 responses in the human and murine models were correlated with increased production of antigen-specific IgE and IgG1, respectively.

How DEP or pyrene induce a IL-4 production and the subsequent Th2 cytokine repertoire is still unknown. Several studies have implicated both direct mast cell and T-cell activation.74,75 In atopic subjects, DEP can synergize with low doses of allergen, which in themselves are insufficient to produce measurable IL-4 protein.59,76 In one study, IL-4 protein and IL-4+ cells could be detected in nasal washes as early as 4 hr after challenge with DEP plus allergen.74 At this time, the frequency of CD3+ cells in the IL-4+ cell population ranged from 0 to 12%, suggesting that T cells were not the main source of this early IL-4. In contrast, CD117+ cells (primarily mast cells) constituted between 65 and 100% of IL-4+ cells. No IL-4+ CD19/CD20+ (B cells) or IL-4+ CD56+ cells [natural killer (NK) cells] were detected at this time. As the allergic response progressed, the primary source of IL-4 changed. At the peak of IL-4 production, 18 hr after challenge, staining for intracellular IL-4 was observed predominantly (73–100%) in CD3+ cells. This study implies that mast cells produce the initial burst of IL-4, which deviates the subsequent response towards a Th2 pattern by expanding the repertoire of IL-4-producing cells in the local microenvironment. In support of this idea are studies that show that DEP can induce IL-4 and IL-6 production from purified bone marrow-derived mast cells in vitro.77 Recently Bömmel et al. have shown that in vitro IL-4 production can be induced by pyrene.75 Pyrene activated the IL-4 promoter in both T-cell lines and a human mast-cell line, but not in B-cell lines, suggesting that stimulation by pyrene of the IL-4 promoter is cell-type specific. Human IgE class-switching promoter is regulated by IL-4 by the STAT-6 pathway, which also regulates CD23 and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) II expression. Pyrene did not alter regulation of STAT-6 activation suggesting that it does not increase IL-4 expression by interfering with IL-4 signalling.

ALLERGIC INFLAMMATION and AIRWAY HYPERREACTIVITY

Animal models have demonstrated that the increased allergic antibody production and the generation of a Th2 response produced by interaction between allergen and pollutants may also result in enhanced effects on allergic asthma.48,51,7883 In a series of studies, Sagai and coworkers have shown that in mice repeatedly challenged intratracheally with DEP and OA, not only were IgG1 and IgE and Th2 cytokines higher than in OA alone inoculated mice but also there were clear signs of increased allergic inflammation.48,51,80,82 Eosinophil infiltration of the submucosa of medium and small bronchioles was significantly enhanced, as were goblet cell numbers in the bronchi and bronchioles. Both these histopathologic changes correlated significantly with anti-OA IgG1 production. Additionally, cellular profile of BAL revealed that DEP augmented macrophage, eosinophil, neutrophil and lymphocyte numbers. Airway hyperresponsiveness was measured in these mice by respiratory resistance to acetylcholine and was found to increase with DEP dose. The same group extended their model to demonstrate that these results could be duplicated by diesel exhaust inhalation.78,81 Mice were sensitized with alum plus OA i.p. and exposed to 3 mg/m3 diesel exhaust for 6 weeks. Enhanced allergic airway inflammation and goblet cell hyperplasia was observed. The number of eosinophils per length of basement membrane of the bronchial epithelium was on average 4·4-times greater in mice receiving DEP plus OA than in those receiving OA alone, while goblet cell numbers were 6-fold higher. Similarly, BAL cell numbers and airway hyperresponsiveness were also augmented. Recently Ohta et al. have shown that in a DEP intranasal mouse model, antibodies raised against GM-CSF will abolish the DEP-evoked responses, suggesting that DEP may induce airway hyperresponsiveness by stimulating GM-CSF synthesis.83

Studies exploring effect of diesel exhaust on human lower airways have been restricted to normal healthy subjects. Rudell and co-workers have exposed non-smoking subjects for 1 hr to diluted diesel exhaust and performed BAL 24 hr after exposure.8487 Increased neutrophil, B-cell and alveolar macrophage recruitment in the airways was recorded along with increases in histamine and fibronectin. Additionally, phagocytosis by alveolar macrophage in vitro was decreased. Similar results have been observed following NO2 or ozone exposure.88,89 Bronchial biopsies performed after a 6-hr exposure to diesel exhaust have shown increases in neutrophils, mast cells and T cells, and up-regulation of the adhesion molecules intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) both implicated in allergic asthma.90 In human subjects, exposure to diesel exhaust induces increased concentrations of the antioxidant ascorbic acid in nasal cavity lining fluids.91 Similarly, in the animal models, the effects of DEP could be reversed by introducing superoxide dismutase into the airway.82 As asthmatic patients are thought to be subject to increased oxidative stress, these studies suggest that DEP and other pollutants are acting by induction of reactive oxygen species. (For a detailed review of the growing evidence to support this view please see ref. 56).

Exposure chamber studies to gaseous pollutants have been performed on asthmatic individuals. Enhanced airway responses to inhaled allergen has been reported following exposure to the combination of 400 p.p.b. NO2 and 200 p.p.b. SO2.92 Subjects needed a reduced dose of dust mite allergen to induce a fall in forced expiratory volume in 1 second by 20% (PD20 FEV1), compared with prior exposure to air.

Several in vitro studies have demonstrated that both epithelial and mononuclear cells may release pro-inflammatory mediators, chemotactic cytokines and adhesion molecules, which may be involved in pollution-induced allergic airway inflammation observed in vivo. Devalia and co-workers have demonstrated that ozone, SO2 and DEP could all cause release of sICAM-1 and pro-inflammatories such as GM-CSF and IL-8 from human normal bronchial epithelial cells in vitro.2,93,94 Others have shown that DEP and benzo(a)pyrene can also have similar effects on transformed bronchial and basal-polyp-derived upper-airway epithelial cells.95 Neither charcoal nor graphite had such stimulatory effects, demonstrating once again that the activity of DEP is not due to its particulate nature. The production of GM-CSF and IL-8 by airway epithelial cells can be regulated by the cytokines IL-1 and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Both DEP and DEP extracts can induce in vitro IL-1 and TNF-α production in rat pulmonary alveolar macrophages.96 IL-8 is a member of the CXC family of chemotactic or chemokines and is mainly active on neutrophils. The CC chemokine family includes regulated on activation, normal, T-cell expressed, and secreted (RANTES), monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP), and eotaxin. This family is especially important in allergic inflammation as they are involved in chemotaxis of mononuclear cells, activation of eosinophils, mediator release from basophils and mast cells, and augmentation of T-cell proliferation and cytokine production. In addition, elevated expression of CC chemokines has been reported in allergic asthmatic patients and in nasal or bronchial secretions of allergic subjects following challenge with allergen.97 Recently Fahy et al. have demonstrated that in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, the organic extracts from diesel caused an increase in both IL-8 and RANTES, but a decrease in MCP-1 production.98 Furthermore, supernatants from cells stimulated with DEP extracts exhibited a significantly enhanced chemotactic activity for neutrophils and eosinophils.

It seems likely that while DEP synergizes with allergen to act on mast cells and lymphocytes to induce IL-4 and IgE production, it can act in the absence of allergen to induce chemokine secretion from epithelial and mononuclear cells and thus promote inflammatory reactions. Whether these effects are all because of one active fraction, or whether different chemicals in DEP modulate different actions on different cells, is still unknown.

Sensitization

A common proposal to reconcile the experimental and epidemiological data is to suggest that pollutants may cause exacerbation of allergic disease, but can not increase the frequency of atopy, that is, induce the disease. However, at least in an experimental human model, the ability of the model pollutant DEP to cause allergic sensitization has been shown.99 In vivo studies in humans employing combined nasal challenge with DEP and allergen, demonstrated isotype switching to IgE in vivo. Four days after challenge, clones of deleted switch circular DNA (Sε/Sµ), representing switching from µ to ε from nasal lavage cells, could be detected.100 These results indicated that the combination of mucosal stimulation with DEP and ragweed allergen was capable of driving in vivo isotype switching to IgE in humans with ragweed allergy. These results were the first direct demonstration of in vivo IgE isotype switching in humans and suggested that mucosal exposure to DEP may lead to senzitisation.

In a subsequent study, the classic immunogenic neoantigen, keyhole limpet haemocyanin (KLH) was used to demonstrate the ability of DEP exposure to result in primary sensitization of humans by driving a de novo mucosal IgE response.99 Atopic subjects were given an initial nasal immunization with 1 mg KLH followed by two bi-weekly nasal challenges with 100 µg of KLH. Challenge with KLH alone resulted in the formation of anti-KLH IgG and IgA antibodies in nasal washes; however, no anti-KLH IgE could be detected in any subjects. When the experiment was repeated on different atopic subjects, but DEP administered 24 hr prior to each KLH exposure, anti-KLH-specific IgE was detected in 60% of subjects studied. Furthermore, the response was characterized by the formation of a Th2-type cytokine pattern, with elevated protein levels of IL-4, but not IFN-γ, in nasal lavage fluids. In subjects receiving KLH alone, these levels were unchanged. It is unlikely that pollutants can convert a non-atopic into an atopic individual; however, these studies imply that DEP, and similar combustion pollutants, may cause those with the appropriate genetic predisposition to become sensitized to allergens to which they may not otherwise have become sensitized.

Conclusion

Why the increased prevalence of atopy observed in industrialized countries in recent decades? While the ‘hygiene theory’ is both a plausible and attractive explanation it seems clear that it is not ‘the’ answer; indeed there is probably not one simple single answer. Epidemiological studies have certainly implicated lifestyles, including reduced exposure to infections, yet these studies also show a strong role for pollutants. Experimental animal and human models (both in vitro and in vivo) have shown the potential, and elucidated possible mechanisms by which pollutants may modulate the immune response to increase atopic severity and sensitization. As lifestyles become more and more similar throughout Europe, it is likely that pollution will become an ever more important risk factor for atopy.

References

  • 1.Blackley CM. Catarrhus Aestivus. Causes and Nature. London: Dawsons of Pall Mall; 1873. [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Rusznak C, Devalia JL, Davies RJ. The impact of pollution on allergic disease. Allergy. 1994;101:21–7. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1994.tb04234.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Warner JO. Worldwide variations in the prevalence of atopic symptoms: what does it all mean? Thorax. 1999;54(Suppl.:2):S46–S51. doi: 10.1136/thx.54.2008.s46. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Strachan DP, Golding G, Anderson HR. Regional variations in wheezing illness in British children: effect of migration during early childhood. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1990;44:231–6. doi: 10.1136/jech.44.3.231. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Serafini U. Do infections protect against asthma and atopy? Allergy. 1997;52:955–7. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb01257.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Committee on The International Study of Asthma, Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC), Steering Committee. Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema. ISAAC Lancet. 1998. pp. 1225–32. [PubMed]
  • 7.Nowak D, Wichmann H-E, Magnusson H. Asthma and atopy in Western and Eastern communities- current status and open questions. Clin Exp Allergy. 1998;28:1043–6. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1998.00373.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ. 1989;299:1259–60. doi: 10.1136/bmj.299.6710.1259. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Holt PG. Environmental factors and primary T-cell sensitisation to inhalent allergens in infancy: reappraisal of the role of infections and air pollution. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 1995;6:1–10. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.1995.tb00250.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Mossman TR, Coffman RL. Th1 and Th2 cells: different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties. Annu Rev Immunol. 1989;7:145–51. doi: 10.1146/annurev.iy.07.040189.001045. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Bodner C, Godden D, Seaton A. Family size, childhood infections and atopic diseases. The Aberdeen WHEASE Group. Thorax. 1998;53:28–32. doi: 10.1136/thx.53.1.28. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.von Mutius E, Martinez FD, Fritzsch C, Nicolai T, Reitmeir P, Thiemann HH. Skin test reactivity and number of siblings. BMJ. 1994;308:692–5. doi: 10.1136/bmj.308.6930.692. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Kramer U, Heinrich J, Wjst M, Wichmann HE. Age of entry to day nursery and allergy in later childhood. Lancet. 1999;353:450–4. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)06329-6. 10.1016/s0140-6736(98)06329-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Shirakawa T, Enomoto T, Shimazu SI, Hopkin JM. The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorder. Science. 1997;275:77–9. doi: 10.1126/science.275.5296.77. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Shaheen SO, Aaby P, Hall AJ, Barker DJ, Heyes CB, Shiell AW, Goudiaby A. Measles and atopy in Guinea-Bissau. Lancet. 1996;347:1792–6. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)91617-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Matricardi PM, Rosmini F, Ferrigno L, et al. Cross sectional retrospective study of prevalence of atopy among Italian military students with antibodies against hepatitis A virus. BMJ. 1997;314:999–1003. doi: 10.1136/bmj.314.7086.999. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.von Hertzen L, Klaukka T, Mattila H, Haahtela T. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and the subsequent development of asthma and allergic conditions. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;12:1211–4. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(99)70015-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Paunio M, Heinonen OP, Virtanen M, Leinikki P, Patja A, Peltola H. Measles history and atopic diseases: a population-based cross-sectional study. JAMA. 2000;283:343–6. doi: 10.1001/jama.283.3.343. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Alm JS, Lilja G, Pershagen G, Scheynius A. Early BCG vaccination and development of atopy. Lancet. 1997;350:400–3. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)02207-1. 10.1016/s0140-6736(97)02207-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Strannegård IL, Larsson LO, Wennergren G, Strannegård Ö. Prevalence of allergy in children in relation to prior BCG vaccination and infection with atyoical mycobacteria. Allergy. 1998;53:249–54. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1998.tb03884.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Wang C-C, Rook GA. Inhibition of an established allergic response to ovalbumin in BALB/c mice by killed Mycobacterium vaccae. Immunology. 1998;93:307–13. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1998.00432.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Erb KJ, Holloway JW, Sobeck A, Moll H, LeGros G. Infection of mice with Mycobacterium bovis–Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) suppresses allergen-induced airway eosinophilia. J Exp Med. 1998;187:561–9. doi: 10.1084/jem.187.4.561. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Futterman LG, Lemberg L. The Framingham Heart Study: a pivotal legacy of the last millennium. Am J Crit Care. 2000;9:147–51. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Editorial. Control of infectious diseases. MMWR. 1999. pp. 621–9. [PubMed]
  • 25.Holt PG, Sly PD, Bjorksten B. Atopy versus infectious diseases in childhood: a question of balance. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 1997;8:53–8. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.1997.tb00145.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Seaton A, Godden DJ, Brown K. Increase in asthma: a more toxic environment or a more susceptible population? Thorax. 1994;49:171–4. doi: 10.1136/thx.49.2.171. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Kemp T, Pearce N, Fitzharris P, Crane J, Fergusson D, St George I, Wickens K, Beasley R. Is infant immunisation a risk factor for childhood asthma or allergy? Epidemiology. 1997;8:678–80. doi: 10.1097/00001648-199710000-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Fergusson DM, Crane J, Beasley R, Horwood LJ. Perinatal factors and atopic disease in childhood. Clin Exp Allergy. 1997;27:1394–401. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1997.1430947.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.von Mutius E, Fritzsch C, Weiland SK, Roll G, Magnussen H. Prevalence of asthma and allergic disorders among children in united Germany: a descriptive comparison. BMJ. 1992;305:1395–9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.305.6866.1395. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Trepka MJ, Heinrich J, Wichmann HE. The epidemiology of atopic diseases in Germany: an east–west comparison. Rev Environ Health. 1996;11:119–31. doi: 10.1515/reveh.1996.11.3.119. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Bjorksten B, Dumitrascu D, Foucard T, et al. Prevalence of childhood asthma, rhinitis and eczema in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Eur Resp J. 1998;12:432–7. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.12020432. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Bjorksten B. Environmental factors and respiratory hypersensitivity: Experiences from studies in Eastern and Western Europe. Toxicol Lett. 1996;86:93–8. doi: 10.1016/0378-4274(96)03679-x. 10.1016/0378-4274(96)03679-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.von Mutius E, Weiland SK, Fritzsch C, Duhme H, Keil U. Increasing prevalence of hay fever and atopy among children in Leipzig, East Germany. Lancet. 1998;351:862–6. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)10100-3. 10.1016/s0140-6736(97)10100-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Heinrich J, Hoelscher B, Wjst M, Ritz B, Cyrys J, Wichmann H. Respiratory diseases and allergies in two polluted areas in East Germany. Environ Health Perspect. 1999;107:53–62. doi: 10.1289/ehp.9910753. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Behrendt H, Friedrichs KH, Krämer U, Hitzfield B, Becker WM, Ring J. The role of indoor and outdoor pollution in allergic diseases. Prog Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;3:83–9. [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Ishizaki T, Koizumi K, Ikemori R, Ishiyama Y, Kushibiki E. Studies of prevalence of Japanese cedar pollinosis among the residents in a densely cultivated area. Ann Allergy. 1987;58:265–70. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Kramer U, Koch T, Ranft U, Ring J, Behrendt H. Traffic-related air pollution is associated with atopy in children living in urban areas. Epidemiology. 2000;11:64–70. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200001000-00014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Weiland SK, Mundt KA, Ruckmann A, Keil U. Self-reported wheezing and allergic rhinitis in children and traffic density on street of residence. Ann Epidemiol. 1994;4:243–7. doi: 10.1016/1047-2797(94)90103-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Barfknecht TR, Hites RA, Cavaliers EL, Thilly WG. Human cell mutagenicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon components of diesel emissions. Dev Toxicol Environ Sci. 1982;10:277–94. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Williams PT, Bartle KD, Andrews GE. The relation between polyclic aromatic compounds in diesel fuels and exhaust particulates. Fuel. 1986;65:1150–8. [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Becker AB. Is primary prevention of asthma possible? Can Respir J. 1998;5:45A–9A. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Kulig M, Luck W, Wahn U. The association between pre- and postnatal tobacco smoke exposure and allergic sensitisation during early childhood. Multicentre Allergy Study Group, Germany Human. Exp Toxicol. 1999;18:241–4. doi: 10.1191/096032799678839987. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.1992 Census of Transportation. Truck inventory and use survey. Washington, DC:: U.S. Bureau of the Census; 1995. [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Muranaka M, Suzuki S, Koizumi K, Takafuji S, Miyamoto T, Ikemori R, Tokiwa H. Adjuvant activity of diesel-exhaust particulates for the production of IgE antibody in mice. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1986;79:639–45. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(86)90355-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Takafuji S, Suzuki S, Koizumi K, Tadokoro K, Miyamoto T, Ikemori R, Muranaka M. Diesel-exhaust particulates inoculated by the intranasal route have an adjuvant activity for IgE production in mice. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1987;79:639–45. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(87)80161-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Fujimaki H, Nohara O, Ichinose T, Watanabe N, Saito S. IL-4 production in mediastinal lymph node cells in mice intratracheally instilled with diesel exhaust particulates and antigen. Toxicology. 1994;92:261–8. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(94)90182-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Fujimaki H, Saneyoshi K, Shiraishi F, Imai T, Endo T. Inhalation of diesel exhaust enhances antigen-specific IgE antibody production in mice. Toxicology. 1997;116:227–33. doi: 10.1016/s0300-483x(96)03539-1. 10.1016/s0300-483x(96)03539-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Ichinose T, Takano H, Miyabara Y, Yanagisawa R, Sagai M. Murine strain differences in allergic airway inflammation and immunoglobulin production by a combination of antigen and diesel exhaust particles. Toxicology. 1997;122:183–92. doi: 10.1016/s0300-483x(97)00096-6. 10.1016/s0300-483x(97)00096-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Ovary Z, Benacerral B, Bloch KJ. Properties of guinea pig 7S antibodies involved in passive cutaneous and systemic anaphylaxis. J Exp Med. 1963;117:951–64. doi: 10.1084/jem.117.6.951. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Oshiba A, Hamelmann E, Takeda K, Bradley KL, Loader JE, Larsen GL, Gelfand EW. Passive transfer of immediate hypersensitivity and airway hyperresponsiveness by allergen-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) E and IgG1 in mice. J Clin Invest. 1996;97:1398–408. doi: 10.1172/JCI118560. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 51.Takano H, Yoshikawa T, Ichinose T, Miyabara Y, Imaoka K, Sagai M. Diesel exhaust particles enhance antigen-induced airway inflammation and local cytokine expression in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:36–42. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.156.1.9610054. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 52.Osebold JW, Gershwin LJ, Zee YC. Studies on the enhancement of allergic lung sensitisation by inhalation of ozone and sulfuric acid aerosol. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 1980;3:221–34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 53.Gershwin LJ, Osebold JW, Zee YC. Immunoglobulin E-containing cells in mouse lung following allergen inhalation and ozone exposure. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1981;65:266–77. doi: 10.1159/000232766. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 54.Gilmour MI. Interaction of air pollutants and pulmonary allergic responses in experimental animals. Toxicology. 1995;105:335–42. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(95)03230-d. 10.1016/0300-483x(95)03230-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55.Seymour BWP, Pinkerton KE, Friebertshauser KE, Coffman RL, Gershwin LJ. Second-hand smoke is an adjuvant for T helper-2 responses in a murine model of allergy. J Immunol. 1997;159:6169–75. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56.Nel AE, Diaz-Sanchez D, Ng D, Hiura T, Saxon A. Enhancement of allergic inflammation by the interaction between diesel exhaust particles and the immune system. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1998;102:539–54. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(98)70269-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 57.Diaz-Sanchez D, Dotson AR, Takenaka H, Saxon A. Diesel exhaust particles induce local IgE production in vivo and alter the pattern of IgE messenger RNA isoforms. J Clin Invest. 1994;94:1417–25. doi: 10.1172/JCI117478. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58.Committee of Environmental and Occupational Health, Assembly of the American Thoracic Society. Health effects of outdoor air pollution. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996. pp. 477–98. [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 59.Diaz-Sanchez D, Tsien A, Fleming J, Saxon A. Combined diesel exhaust particulate and ragweed allergen challenge markedly enhanced in vivo nasal ragweed-specific IgE and skews cytokine production to a TH2-type pattern. J Immunol. 1997;158:2406–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 60.Armitage RJ, Macduff BM, Spriggs MK, Fanslow WC. Human B cell proliferation and Ig secretion induced by recombinant CD40 ligand are modulated by soluble cytokines. J Immunol. 1993;150:2671–3680. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61.Behrendt H, Becker WM, Friedrichs KH, Darsow U, Tomingas R. Interaction between aeroallergens and airborne particulate matter. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1992;99:425–8. doi: 10.1159/000236303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62.Behrendt H, Becker WM, Fritzsche C, Sliwa-Tomczok W, Tomczok J, Friedrichs KH, Ring J. Air pollution and Allergy: Experimental studies on modulation of allergen release from pollen by air pollutants. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1997;113:69–74. doi: 10.1159/000237511. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63.Løvik M, Høgesh A-K, Gaarder PI, Hagemann R, Eide I. Diesel Exhaust Particles and carbon black have adjuvant activity on the lymph node response and systemic IgE production to ovalbumin. Toxicolgy. 1997;121:165–78. doi: 10.1016/s0300-483x(97)00075-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64.Suzuki T, Kanoh T. The adjuvancy activity of pyrene in diesel exhaust on IgE antibody production in mice. Jpn J Allergol. 1993;42:963–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65.Takenaka H, Zhang K, Diaz-Sanchez D, Tsein A, Saxon A. Enhanced human IgE results from exposure to the aromatic hydrocarbons in diesel exhaust: Direct effects on B cells IgE production. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;95:103–15. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(95)70158-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 66.Punnonen J, Aversa G, Cocks BG, Mckenzie ANJ, Menon G, Zurawski G, Malefyt RW, de Vries JE. Interleukin 13 induces interleukin 4-independent IgG4 and IgE synthesis and CD23 expression by human B cells. Pro Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993;90:3730–4. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.8.3730. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 67.Jabara HH, Fu SM, Geha RS, Vercelli D. CD40 and IgE: Synergism between anti-CD40 monoclonal antibody and interleukin 4 in the induction of IgE synthesis by highly purified human B cells. J Exp Med. 1990;172:1861–4. doi: 10.1084/jem.172.6.1861. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 68.Diaz-Sanchez D, Chegini S, Zhang K, Saxon A. CD58 (LFA-3) stimulation provides a signal for human isotype switching and IgE production distinct from CD40. J Immunol. 1994;153:10–20. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 69.Zhang K, Clark EA, Saxon A. CD40 Stimulation provides an IFN-γ-independent and IL-4-dependent differention signal directory to human B cells for IgE production. J Immunol. 1991;146:1836–42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70.Pearce EJ, Reiner SL. Induction of Th2 responses in infectious diseases. Curr Opin Immunol. 1995;7:497–504. doi: 10.1016/0952-7915(95)80094-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 71.Fujimaki H, Saneyoshi K, Nohara O, Shiraishi F, Imai T. Intranasal instillation of diesel exhaust particulates and antigen in mice modulated cytokine productions in cervical lymph node cells. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1995;108:268–73. doi: 10.1159/000237163. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 72.Suzuki T, Kanoh T, Ishimori M, Ikeda S, Ohkuni H. Adjuvant activity of diesel exhaust particulates in production of anti-IgE and anti-IgG1 antibodies to mite allergens in mice. J Clin Lab Immunol. 1996;48:187–99. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 73.Diaz-Sanchez D, Tsien A, Casillas A, Dotson AR, Saxon A. Enhanced nasal cytokine production in human beings after in vivo challenge with diesel exhaust particles. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1996;98:114–23. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(96)70233-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 74.Wang M, Saxon A, Diaz-Sanchez D. Early IL-4 production driving Th2 differentiation in a human in vivo allergic model is mast cell derived. Clin Immunol. 1999;90:47–54. doi: 10.1006/clim.1998.4628. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 75.Bömmel H, Li-Weber M, Serfling E, Duschl A. The environmental pollutant pyrene induces the production of IL-4. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;105:796–802. doi: 10.1067/mai.2000.105124. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 76.Diaz-Sanchez D, Tsien A, Fleming J, Saxon A. Effect of topical Fluticasone propionate on the mucosal allergic response induced by ragweed allergen and diesel exhaust particle challenge. Clin Immunol. 1999;90:313–22. doi: 10.1006/clim.1998.4676. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 77.Saneyoshi K, Nohara O, Imai T, Shiraishi F, Moriyama H, Fujimaka H. IL-4 and IL-6 production of bone-marrow derived mast cells is enhanced by treatment with environmental pollutants. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1997;114:237–45. doi: 10.1159/000237674. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 78.Miyabara Y, Takano H, Ichinose T, Lim H, Sagai M. Diesel exhaust enhances allergic inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1–7. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.4.9708066. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 79.Kumagai Y, Arimoto T, Shinyashiki M, Shimojo N, Kakai Y, Yoshikawa T, Sagai M. Generation of reactive oxygen species during interaction of diesel exhaust particle components with NADPH-cytochrome p450 reductase and involvement of the bioactivation in the DNA damage. Free Radic Biol Med. 1997;22:479–87. doi: 10.1016/s0891-5849(96)00341-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 80.Takano H, Ichinose T, Miyabara Y, Yoshikawa T, Sagai M. Diesel exhaust particles enhance airway responsiveness following allergen exposure in mice. Immunopharmol Immunotoxicol. 1998;20:329–36. doi: 10.3109/08923979809038548. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 81.Miyabara Y, Ichinose T, Takano H, Lim H, Sagai M. Effects of diesel exhaust on allergic airway inflammation in mice. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1998;102:805–12. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(98)70021-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 82.Sagai M, Furuyama A, Ichinose T. Biological effects of diesel exhaust particles (DEP). III Pathogenesis of asthma like symptoms in mice. Free Radic Biol Med. 1996;21:199–209. doi: 10.1016/0891-5849(96)00032-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 83.Ohta K, Yamashita N, Tajima M, et al. Diesel exhaust particulate induces airway hyperresponsiveness in a murine model: Essential role of GM-CSF. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;104:1024–30. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(99)70084-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 84.Rudell B, Ledin MC, Hammarstrom U, Stjenberg N, Lundberg B, Sandstrom T. Effects on symptoms and lung function in humans experimentally exposed to diesel exhaust. Occup Environ Med. 1996;53:658–62. doi: 10.1136/oem.53.10.658. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 85.Salvi S, Blomberg A, Rudell B, Kelly F, Sandstom T, Holgate ST, Frew A. Acute inflammatory responses in the airways and peripheral blood after short-term exposure to diesel exhaust in healthy human volunteers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:702–9. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.3.9709083. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 86.Rudell B, Blomberg A, Heeleday R, Ledin MC, Lundberg B, Stjenberg N, Horstedt P, Sandstrom T. Bronchoalveolar inflammation after exposure to diesel exhaust: comparison between unfiltered and particle trap filtered exhaust. Occup Environ Med. 1999;56:527–34. doi: 10.1136/oem.56.8.527. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 87.Rudell B, Wass U, Horstedt P, et al. Efficiency of automotive cabin air filters to reduce acute health effects of diesel exhaust in human subjects. Occup Environ Med. 1999;56:222–31. doi: 10.1136/oem.56.4.222. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 88.Blomberg A, Krishna MT, Helleday R, et al. Persistent airway inflammation but accommodated antioxidant and lung function responses after repeated daily exposure to nitrogen dioxide. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:536–43. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.2.9711068. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 89.Krishna MT, Blomberg A, Biscione GL, Kelly F, Sandstrom T, Frew A, Holgate S. Short-term ozone exposure upregulates P-selectin in normal human airways. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:1798–803. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154895. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 90.Krishna MT, Madden J, Teran LM, et al. Effects of 0.2 ppm ozone on biomarkers of inflammation in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and bronchial mucosa of healthy subjects. Eur Respir J. 1998;11:1294–300. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.11061294. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 91.Blomberg A, Sainsbury C, Rudell B, Frew AJ, Holgate ST, Sandstrom T, Kelly FJ. Nasal cavity lining fluid ascorbic acid concentration increases in healthyhuman volunteers following short term exposure to diesel exhaust. Free Radic Res. 1998;28:59–67. doi: 10.3109/10715769809097876. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 92.Devalia JL, Rusznak C, Herdman MJ, Trigg CJ, Tarraf H, Davies RJ. Effect of nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide on airway response of mild asthmatic patients to allergen inhalation. Lancet. 1994;344:1668–71. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90458-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 93.Devalia JL, Bayram H, Abdelaziz MM, Sapsford RJ, Davies RJ. Differences between cytokine release from bronchial epithelial cells of asthmatic patients and non-asthmatic subjects: effect of exposure to diesel exhaust particles. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1999;118:437–9. doi: 10.1159/000024157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 94.Bayram H, Devalia JL, Sapsford RJ, Ohtoshi T, Miyabara Y, Sgai M, Davies RJ. The effect of diesel exhaust particles on cell function and release of inflammatory mediators from human bronchial epithelial cells in vitro. Am J Respir Cell Care Biol. 1998;18:441–8. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.18.3.2882. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 95.Ohtoshi T, Takizawa H, Okazaki H, Kawasaki S, Takeuchi N, Ohta K, Ito K. Diesel exhaust particles stimulate human airway epithelial cells to produce cytokines relevant to airway inflammation in vitro. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1998;101:778–85. doi: 10.1016/S0091-6749(98)70307-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 96.Yang HM, Ma JYC, Castronova V, JKHM. Effects of diesel exhaust paarticles on the release of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α from rat alveolar macrophages. Exp Lung Res. 1997;23:269–84. doi: 10.3109/01902149709087372. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 97.Homey B, Zlotnik A. Chemokines in allergy. Curr Opin Immunol. 1999;11:626–34. doi: 10.1016/s0952-7915(99)00028-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 98.Fahy O, Tsicopoulos A, Hammad H, Pestel J, Tonnel AB, Wallaert B. Effects of diesel organic extracts on chemokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;103:1115–24. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(99)70187-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 99.Diaz-Sanchez D, Penichet-Garcia M, Wang M, Jyrala M, Saxon A. Nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles can induce sensitisation to a neoallergen in the human mucosa. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;104:1183–8. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(99)70011-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 100.Fujieda S, Diaz-Sanchez D, Saxon A. Combined nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles and allergen induces in vivo IgE nasal switching. Am J Respir Mol Biol. 1998;4:1583–90. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.19.3.3143. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Immunology are provided here courtesy of British Society for Immunology

RESOURCES