Skip to main content
NCBI home page
The Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association logoLink to The Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association
. 1982 Mar;26(1):21–30.

The role of autogenic inhibition in the reduction of muscle splinting

Herbert Miller
PMCID: PMC2484598

Abstract

Muscle ‘splinting’ (acute hypertonicity) is the clinical entity commonly featured as a result of somatic or visceral trauma. One of the implicit objectives of manipulative therapy is to stretch hypertonic muscles. The mechanical parameters of the manipulative thrust are reviewed in relation to the physiology of the muscle afferents which are activated by changes in length, tension and momentum. During muscular contraction, autogenic inhibition is initiated in parallel (with the motor excitation), via the interneurons that are activated by the Golgi tendon organs. It appears that when an excessive force is applied to or exerted by a muscle at varying lengths (extensions), the Golgi tendon organ inhibition regulates not only the frequency of discharge, but also the range of firing of the motoneurons. This relaxation (the inhibition of gamma, as well as alpha motoneurons) is one of the desired end results of manual therapy in most conditions. The role of other muscle afferents (groups Ia and II) and the “gamma loop” are also discussed in relation to the muscle ‘splinting’ phenomenon.

Full text

PDF
21

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Appelberg B., Molander C. A rubro-olivary pathway. I. Identification of a descending system for control of the dynamic sensitivity of muscle spindles. Exp Brain Res. 1967;3(4):372–381. doi: 10.1007/BF00237562. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. BROCK L. G., COOMBS J. S., ECCLES J. C. The recording of potentials from motoneurones with an intracellular electrode. J Physiol. 1952 Aug;117(4):431–460. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1952.sp004759. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. BROCK L. G., ECCLES J. C., RALL W. Experimental investigations on the afferent fibres in muscle nerves. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1951 Oct 30;138(893):453–475. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1951.0035. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bentley F. H., Schlapp W. The effects of pressure on conduction in peripheral nerve. J Physiol. 1943 Jun 30;102(1):72–82. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1943.sp004016. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Binder M. D., Kroin J. S., Moore G. P., Stuart D. G. The response of Golgi tendon organs to single motor unit contractions. J Physiol. 1977 Oct;271(2):337–349. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1977.sp012003. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bistevins R., Awad E. A. Structure and ultrastructure of mechanoreceptors at the human musculotendinous junction. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1981 Feb;62(2):74–83. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Brown M. C., Engberg I., Matthews P. B. The relative sensitivity to vibration of muscle receptors of the cat. J Physiol. 1967 Oct;192(3):773–800. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1967.sp008330. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Burg D., Szumski A. J., Struppler A., Velho F. Afferent and efferent activation of human muscle receptors involved in reflex and voluntary contraction. Exp Neurol. 1973 Dec;41(3):754–768. doi: 10.1016/0014-4886(73)90066-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. CARPENTER D., LUNDBERG A., NORRSELL U. PRIMARY AFFERENT DEPOLARIZATION EVOKED FROM THE SENSORIMOTOR CORTEX. Acta Physiol Scand. 1963 Sep-Oct;59:126–142. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1963.tb02729.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. COOMBS J. S., ECCLES J. C., FATT P. The specific ionic conductances and the ionic movements across the motoneuronal membrane that produce the inhibitory post-synaptic potential. J Physiol. 1955 Nov 28;130(2):326–374. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1955.sp005412. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. COOPER S. The responses of the primary and secondary endings of muscle spindles with intact motor innervation during applied stretch. Q J Exp Physiol Cogn Med Sci. 1961 Oct;46:389–398. doi: 10.1113/expphysiol.1961.sp001558. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. CORAZZA R., FADIGA E., PARMEGGIANI P. L. PATTERNS OF PYRAMIDAL ACTIVATION OF CAT'S MOTONEURONS. Arch Ital Biol. 1963 Oct 5;101:337–364. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. CURTIS D. R., PHILLIS J. W., WATKINS J. C. Cholinergic and non-cholinergic transmission in the mammalian spinal cord. J Physiol. 1961 Sep;158:296–323. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1961.sp006770. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Curtis D. R., Ryall R. W. The synaptic excitation of Renshaw cells. Exp Brain Res. 1966;2(1):81–96. doi: 10.1007/BF00234362. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Donat J. R., Wiśniewski H. M. The spatio-temporal pattern of Wallerian degeneration in mammalian peripheral nerves. Brain Res. 1973 Apr 13;53(1):41–53. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(73)90765-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. ECCLES J. C., ECCLES R. M., IGGO A., ITO M. Distribution of recurrent inhibition among motoneurones. J Physiol. 1961 Dec;159:479–499. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1961.sp006822. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. ECCLES J. C., ECCLES R. M., IGGO A., LUNDBERG A. Electrophysiological investigations on Renshaw cells. J Physiol. 1961 Dec;159:461–478. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1961.sp006821. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. ECCLES J. C., FATT P., LANDGREN S. Central pathway for direct inhibitory action of impulses in largest afferent nerve fibres to muscle. J Neurophysiol. 1956 Jan;19(1):75–98. doi: 10.1152/jn.1956.19.1.75. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. ECCLES J. C., FATT P., LANDGREN S., WINSBURY G. J. Spinal cord potentials generated by volleys in the large muscle afferents. J Physiol. 1954 Sep 28;125(3):590–606. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1954.sp005183. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. ECCLES R. M., LUNDBERG A. Supraspinal control of interneurones mediating spinal reflexes. J Physiol. 1959 Oct;147:565–584. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1959.sp006262. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. ECCLES R. M., LUNDBERG A. The synaptic linkage of direct inhibition. Acta Physiol Scand. 1958 Oct 8;43(3-4):204–215. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1958.tb01589.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Eagles J. P., Purple R. L. Afferent fibers with multiple encoding sites. Brain Res. 1974 Sep 6;77(2):187–193. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(74)90783-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Fidone S. J., Preston J. B. Patterns of motor cortex control of flexor and extensor cat fusimotor neurons. J Neurophysiol. 1969 Mar;32(2):103–115. doi: 10.1152/jn.1969.32.2.103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Fukami Y. Interaction of impulse activities originating from individual Golgi tendon organs innervated by branches of a single axon. J Physiol. 1980 Jan;298:483–499. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1980.sp013096. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. GRANIT R. Neuromuscular interaction in postural tone of the cat's isometric soleus muscle. J Physiol. 1958 Oct 31;143(3):387–402. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1958.sp006067. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. GRANIT R., PASCOE J. E., STEG G. The behaviour of tonic alpha and gamma motoneurones during stimulation of recurrent collaterals. J Physiol. 1957 Oct 30;138(3):381–400. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1957.sp005857. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. GRANIT R., RUTLEDGE L. T. Surplus excitation in reflex action of motoneurones as measured by recurrent inhibition. J Physiol. 1960 Dec;154:288–307. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1960.sp006580. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. GRANIT R., STROM G. Autogenetic modulation of excitability of single ventral horn cells. J Neurophysiol. 1951 Mar;14(2):113–132. doi: 10.1152/jn.1951.14.2.113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Gaidai N. I. Konvergentisiia retikulo-, vestibulo- i rubro-spinal ' nykh vliianii na motoneironakh sheinogo otdela spinnogo mozga koshki. Neirofiziologiia. 1978;10(4):391–399. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Goslow G. E., Jr, Stauffer E. K., Nemeth W. C., Stuart D. G. The cat step cycle; responses of muscle spindles and tendon organs to passive stretch within the locomotor range. Brain Res. 1973 Sep 28;60(1):35–54. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(73)90849-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Granit R., Kellerth J. O., Szumski A. J. Intracellular autogenetic effects of muscular contration on extensor motoneurones. The silent period. J Physiol. 1966 Feb;182(3):484–503. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1966.sp007833. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Granit R., Kernell D., Lamarre Y. Synaptic stimulation superimposed on motoneurones firing in the 'secondary range' to injected current. J Physiol. 1966 Nov;187(2):401–415. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1966.sp008098. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Gregory J. E., Proske U. The responses of Golgi tendon organs to stimulation of different combinations of motor units. J Physiol. 1979 Oct;295:251–262. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1979.sp012966. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Grillner S., Hongo T., Lund S. Descending monosynaptic and reflex control of gamma-motoneurones. Acta Physiol Scand. 1969 Apr;75(4):592–613. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1969.tb04414.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. HAGBARTH K. E., NAESS K. The autogenetic inhibition during stretch and contraction of the muscle. Acta Physiol Scand. 1950;21(1):41–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1950.tb00163.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. HARVEY R. J., MATTHEWS P. B. The response of de-efferented muscle spindle endings in the cat's soleus to slow extension of the muscle. J Physiol. 1961 Jul;157:370–392. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1961.sp006729. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Haase J., Vogel B. Die Erregung der Renshaw-Zellen durch reflektorische Entladungen der alpha-Motoneurone. Pflugers Arch. 1971;325(1):14–27. doi: 10.1007/BF00587488. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Henneman E., Somjen G., Carpenter D. O. Excitability and inhibitability of motoneurons of different sizes. J Neurophysiol. 1965 May;28(3):599–620. doi: 10.1152/jn.1965.28.3.599. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Hikosaka O., Maeda M. Cervical effects on abducens motoneurons and their interaction with vestibulo-ocular reflex. Exp Brain Res. 1973 Dec 20;18(5):512–530. doi: 10.1007/BF00234135. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Hongo T., Jankowska E., Lundberg A. Effects evoked from the rubrospinal tract in cats. Experientia. 1965 Sep 15;21(9):525–526. doi: 10.1007/BF02138973. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Hongo T., Jankowska E., Lundberg A. The rubrospinal tract. I. Effects on alpha-motoneurones innervating hindlimb muscles in cats. Exp Brain Res. 1969;7(4):344–364. doi: 10.1007/BF00237320. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Hongo T., Jankowska E., Lundberg A. The rubrospinal tract. II. Facilitation of interneuronal transmission in reflex paths to motoneurones. Exp Brain Res. 1969;7(4):365–391. doi: 10.1007/BF00237321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Houk J., Henneman E. Responses of Golgi tendon organs to active contractions of the soleus muscle of the cat. J Neurophysiol. 1967 May;30(3):466–481. doi: 10.1152/jn.1967.30.3.466. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. JANSEN J. K., RUDJORD T. ON THE SILENT PERIOD AND GOLGI TENDON ORGANS OF THE SOLEUS MUSCLE OF THE CAT. Acta Physiol Scand. 1964 Dec;62:364–379. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1964.tb10435.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. JANSEN J. K., RUDJORD T. ON THE SILENT PERIOD AND GOLGI TENDON ORGANS OF THE SOLEUS MUSCLE OF THE CAT. Acta Physiol Scand. 1964 Dec;62:364–379. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1964.tb10435.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Jankowska E., Lindström S. Morphology of interneurones mediating Ia reciprocal inhibition of motoneurones in the spinal cord of the cat. J Physiol. 1972 Nov;226(3):805–823. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1972.sp010011. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. KATZ B. Action potentials from a sensory nerve ending. J Physiol. 1950 Oct 16;111(3-4):248–260. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1950.sp004478. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. KATZ B. Depolarization of sensory terminals and the initiation of impulses in the muscle spindle. J Physiol. 1950 Oct 16;111(3-4):261–282. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1950.sp004479. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Korr I. M. Proprioceptors and somatic dysfunction. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 1975 Mar;74(7):638–650. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. LANDGREN S., PHILLIPS C. G., PORTER R. Cortical fields of origin of the monosynaptic pyramidal pathways to some alpha motoneurones of the baboon's hand and forearm. J Physiol. 1962 Apr;161:112–125. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1962.sp006876. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. LANDGREN S., PHILLIPS C. G., PORTER R. Minimal synaptic actions of pyramidal impulses on some alpha motoneurones of the baboon's hand and forearm. J Physiol. 1962 Apr;161:91–111. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1962.sp006875. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. LAPORTE Y., BESSOU P. [Modifications in the excitability of homonymous motoneurons induced by the physiological activation of afferent fibers originating in group II muscles]. J Physiol (Paris) 1959 Sep-Oct;51:897–908. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. LUNDBERG A., NORRSELL U., VOORHOEVE P. Pyramidal effects on lumbo-sacral interneurones activated by somatic afferents. Acta Physiol Scand. 1962 Nov-Dec;56:220–229. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1962.tb02497.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. LUNDBERG A., VOORHOEVE P. Effects from the pyramidal tract on spinal reflex arcs. Acta Physiol Scand. 1962 Nov-Dec;56:201–219. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1962.tb02498.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. LUNDBERG A., WINSBURY G. Selective adequate activation of large afferents from muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs. Acta Physiol Scand. 1960 Jul 15;49:155–164. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1960.tb01939.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Lennerstrand G., Thoden U. Position and velocity sensitivity of muscle spindles in the cat. II. Dynamic fusimotor single-fibre activation of primary endings. Acta Physiol Scand. 1968 Sep-Oct;74(1):16–29. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1968.tb04211.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Lucas M. E., Willis W. D. Identification of muscle afferents which activate interneurons in the intermediate nucleus. J Neurophysiol. 1974 Mar;37(2):282–293. doi: 10.1152/jn.1974.37.2.282. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Lundberg A., Weight F. Functional organization of connexions to the ventral spinocerebellar tract. Exp Brain Res. 1971;12(3):295–316. doi: 10.1007/BF00237922. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. MATTHEWS P. B. MUSCLE SPINDLES AND THEIR MOTOR CONTROL. Physiol Rev. 1964 Apr;44:219–288. doi: 10.1152/physrev.1964.44.2.219. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. MATTHEWS P. B. THE RESPONSE OF DE-EFFERENTED MUSCLE SPINDLE RECEPTORS TO STRETCHING AT DIFFERENT VELOCITIES. J Physiol. 1963 Oct;168:660–678. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1963.sp007214. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. MATTHEWS P. B. The differentiation of two types of fusimotor fibre by their effects on the dynamic response of muscle spindle primary endings. Q J Exp Physiol Cogn Med Sci. 1962 Oct;47:324–333. doi: 10.1113/expphysiol.1962.sp001616. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Matthews B. H. Nerve endings in mammalian muscle. J Physiol. 1933 Apr 13;78(1):1–53. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1933.sp002984. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Matthews P. B. Evidence that the secondary as well as the primary endings of the muscle spindles may be responsible for the tonic stretch reflex of the decerebrate cat. J Physiol. 1969 Oct;204(2):365–393. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1969.sp008918. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. OSCARSSON O. FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE SPINO- AND CUNEOCEREBELLAR TRACTS. Physiol Rev. 1965 Jul;45:495–522. doi: 10.1152/physrev.1965.45.3.495. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. OSCARSSON O. Functional organization of the ventral spino-cerebellar tract in the cat. I. Electrophysiological identification of the tract. Acta Physiol Scand. 1956 Dec 31;38(2):145–165. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1957.tb01379.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. PERL E. R. A comparison of monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex responses from individual flexor motoneurones. J Physiol. 1962 Dec;164:430–449. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1962.sp007030. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. PRESTON J. B., WHITLOCK D. G. Precentral facilitation and inhibition of spinal motoneurons. J Neurophysiol. 1960 Mar;23:154–170. doi: 10.1152/jn.1960.23.2.154. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Phillips C. G. The Ferrier lecture, 1968. Motor apparatus of the baboon's hand. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1969 May 20;173(1031):141–174. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1969.0044. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Piercey M. F., Goldfarb J. Discharge patterns of Renshaw cells evoked by volleys in ipsilateral cutaneous and high-threshold muscle afferents and their relationship to reflexes recorded in ventral roots. J Neurophysiol. 1974 Mar;37(2):294–302. doi: 10.1152/jn.1974.37.2.294. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Pompeiano O., Diete-Spiff K., Carli G. Two pathways transmitting vestibulospinal influences from the lateral vestibular nucleus of Deiters to Extensor Fusimotor Neurones. Pflugers Arch Gesamte Physiol Menschen Tiere. 1967;293(3):272–275. doi: 10.1007/BF00417124. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Proske U., Gregory J. E. Multiple sites of impulse initiation in a tendon organ. Exp Neurol. 1976 Feb;50(2):515–520. doi: 10.1016/0014-4886(76)90023-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. ROBERTS T. D. RHYTHMIC EXCITATION OF A STRETCH REFLEX, REVEALING (A) HYSTERESIS AND (B) A DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE RESPONSES TO PULLING AND TO STRETCHING. Q J Exp Physiol Cogn Med Sci. 1963 Oct;48:328–345. doi: 10.1113/expphysiol.1963.sp001676. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Reinking R. M., Stephens J. A., Stuart D. G. The tendon organs of cat medial gastrocnemius: significance of motor unit type and size for the activation of Ib afferents. J Physiol. 1975 Sep;250(3):491–512. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1975.sp011067. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Rosenberg J. R., Lindsay K. W. Asymmetric tonic labyrinthine reflexes. Brain Res. 1973 Dec 7;63:347–350. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(73)90102-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Ross H. G., Cleveland S., Haase J. Quantitative relation of Renshaw cell discharges to monosynaptic reflex height. Pflugers Arch. 1972;332(1):73–79. doi: 10.1007/BF00603815. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Ryall R. W., Piercey M. F., Polosa C., Goldfarb J. Excitation of Renshaw cells in relation to orthodromic and antidromic excitation of motoneurons. J Neurophysiol. 1972 Jan;35(1):137–148. doi: 10.1152/jn.1972.35.1.137. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Siehl D., Olson D. R., Ross H. E., Rockwood E. E. Manipulation of the lumbar spine with the patient under general anesthesia: evaluation by electromyography and clinical-neurologic examination of its use for lumbar nerve root compression syndrome. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 1971 Jan;70(5):433–440. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Stuart D. G., Mosher C. G., Gerlach R. L., Reinking R. M. Selective activation of Ia afferents by transient muscle stretch. Exp Brain Res. 1970 Jun 25;10(5):477–487. doi: 10.1007/BF00234264. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. TERRIER J. C. [Reversible functional mechanical disorders of the spine and their manipulative treatment]. Z Unfallmed Berufskr. 1959 Jun 15;52:133–148. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. TOTSUKA G., SUZUKI M., KUBOTA K. Vestibular influence on the gamma efferent motor system observed by angular acceleration. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 1963;179:18–24. doi: 10.3109/00016486309138615. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Unsworth A., Dowson D., Wright V. 'Cracking joints'. A bioengineering study of cavitation in the metacarpophalangeal joint. Ann Rheum Dis. 1971 Jul;30(4):348–358. doi: 10.1136/ard.30.4.348. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Vallbo A. B. Muscle spindle response at the onset of isometric voluntary contractions in man. Time difference between fusimotor and skeletomotor effects. J Physiol. 1971 Oct;218(2):405–431. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1971.sp009625. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. WELLS J. B. COMPARISON OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES BETWEEN SLOW AND FAST MAMMALIAN MUSCLES. J Physiol. 1965 May;178:252–269. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1965.sp007626. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. WILSON V. J., TALBOT W. H., KATO M. INHIBITORY CONVERGENCE UPON RENSHAW CELLS. J Neurophysiol. 1964 Nov;27:1063–1079. doi: 10.1152/jn.1964.27.6.1063. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Wilson V. J., Yoshida M. Bilateral connections between labyrinths and neck motoneurons. Brain Res. 1969 May;13(3):603–607. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(69)90271-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Wilson V. J., Yoshida M. Monosynaptic inhibition of neck motoneurons by the medial vestibular nucleus. Exp Brain Res. 1969;9(4):365–380. doi: 10.1007/BF00235245. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Wyke B. Neurology of the cervical spinal joints. Physiotherapy. 1979 Mar;65(3):72–76. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. ten Bruggencate G., Burke R., Lundberg A., Udo M. Interaction between the vestibulospinal tract, contralateral flexor reflex afferents and la afferents. Brain Res. 1969 Jul;14(2):529–532. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(69)90131-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from The Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association are provided here courtesy of The Canadian Chiropractic Association

RESOURCES