Early risk factors for reading difficulties
Biological parents have a history of reading problems
- Early childhood language delays. For example:
- Not saying single words at 15 or 16 months of age
- Not speaking in phrases after 24 months of age
- Not reciting nursery rhymes at four years of age
Difficulties with sounds of words (eg, inability to recognize words that rhyme by five years of age)
Limited understanding of letter-sound relationships
Inability to recognize letters in their name by four years of age
Poor upper and lower case letter identification by the end of kindergarten
Lack of familiarity with book reading (eg, concepts of print)
Limited socioeconomic status and/or literacy environment (eg, home, school or community)
Cognitive deficiency
Hearing impairment
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Domains included in evaluations for reading problems
Early childhood (four to five years of age)
Recognition of alphabet and letter sounds
Receptive and expressive vocabulary
Knowledge of conventions of print
Auditory comprehension
Phonological awareness
Phonological memory
Rapid automatized naming (colours and objects)
School-aged children (six years of age and older)
Ability to read single words
Ability to read pseudowords
Reading comprehension
Reading fluency
Phonological awareness
Phonological memory
Rapid automatized naming (numbers and letters)
Adapted from the following sources:
Snow CE, Burns MS, Griffin P, eds. Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. National Academies Press, 1998.
Grizzle KL, Simms MD. Early language development and language learning disabilities. Pediatr Rev 2005;26:274–83.