Skip to main content
PMC home page
Emerging Infectious Diseases logoLink to Emerging Infectious Diseases
. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):611–614. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010401

West Nile virus: a reemerging global pathogen.

L R Petersen 1, J T Roehrig 1
PMCID: PMC2631751  PMID: 11585520

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (105.4 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Andreadis T. G., Anderson J. F., Vossbrinck C. R. Mosquito surveillance for West Nile virus in Connecticut, 2000: isolation from Culex pipiens, Cx. restuans, Cx. salinarius, and Culiseta melanura. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):670–674. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010413. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Asnis D. S., Conetta R., Teixeira A. A., Waldman G., Sampson B. A. The West Nile Virus outbreak of 1999 in New York: the Flushing Hospital experience. Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Mar;30(3):413–418. doi: 10.1086/313737. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Berthet F. X., Zeller H. G., Drouet M. T., Rauzier J., Digoutte J. P., Deubel V. Extensive nucleotide changes and deletions within the envelope glycoprotein gene of Euro-African West Nile viruses. J Gen Virol. 1997 Sep;78(Pt 9):2293–2297. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-78-9-2293. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Briese T., Glass W. G., Lipkin W. I. Detection of West Nile virus sequences in cerebrospinal fluid. Lancet. 2000 May 6;355(9215):1614–1615. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02220-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Update: West Nile Virus activity--Eastern United States, 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000 Nov 24;49(46):1044–1047. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Cernescu C., Ruţ S. M., Târdei G., Grancea C., Moldoveanu L., Spulbăr E., Tsai T. A high number of severe neurologic clinical forms during an epidemic of West Nile virus infection. Rom J Virol. 1997 Jan-Dec;48(1-4):13–25. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chowers M. Y., Lang R., Nassar F., Ben-David D., Giladi M., Rubinshtein E., Itzhaki A., Mishal J., Siegman-Igra Y., Kitzes R. Clinical characteristics of the West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):675–678. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010414. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Ebel G. D., Dupuis A. P., 2nd, Ngo K., Nicholas D., Kauffman E., Jones S. A., Young D., Maffei J., Shi P. Y., Bernard K. Partial genetic characterization of West Nile virus strains, New York State, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):650–653. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010408. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Eidson M., Komar N., Sorhage F., Nelson R., Talbot T., Mostashari F., McLean R., West Nile Virus Avian Mortality Surveillance Group Crow deaths as a sentinel surveillance system for West Nile virus in the northeastern United States, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):615–620. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010402. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Eidson M., Miller J., Kramer L., Cherry B., Hagiwara Y., West Nile Virus Bird Mortality Analysis Group Dead crow densities and human cases of West Nile virus, New York State, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):662–664. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010411. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Giladi M., Metzkor-Cotter E., Martin D. A., Siegman-Igra Y., Korczyn A. D., Rosso R., Berger S. A., Campbell G. L., Lanciotti R. S. West Nile encephalitis in Israel, 1999: the New York connection. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):659–661. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010410. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Gubler D. J., Clark G. G. Dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever: the emergence of a global health problem. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995 Apr-Jun;1(2):55–57. doi: 10.3201/eid0102.952004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Gubler D. J. Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever in the Americas. P R Health Sci J. 1987 Aug;6(2):107–111. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Gubler D. J., Kuno G., Sather G. E., Waterman S. H. A case of natural concurrent human infection with two dengue viruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1985 Jan;34(1):170–173. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1985.34.170. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Gubler D. J. The global pandemic of dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever: current status and prospects for the future. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1998 Mar;27(2):227–234. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Hadler J., Nelson R., McCarthy T., Andreadis T., Lis M. J., French R., Beckwith W., Mayo D., Archambault G., Cartter M. West Nile virus surveillance in Connecticut in 2000: an intense epizootic without high risk for severe human disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):636–642. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010406. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Han L. L., Popovici F., Alexander J. P., Jr, Laurentia V., Tengelsen L. A., Cernescu C., Gary H. E., Jr, Ion-Nedelcu N., Campbell G. L., Tsai T. F. Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and meningoencephalitis, Romania, 1996. J Infect Dis. 1999 Jan;179(1):230–233. doi: 10.1086/314566. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hanna J. N., Ritchie S. A., Phillips D. A., Lee J. M., Hills S. L., van den Hurk A. F., Pyke A. T., Johansen C. A., Mackenzie J. S. Japanese encephalitis in north Queensland, Australia, 1998. Med J Aust. 1999 Jun 7;170(11):533–536. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1999.tb127878.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Hanna J. N., Ritchie S. A., Phillips D. A., Shield J., Bailey M. C., Mackenzie J. S., Poidinger M., McCall B. J., Mills P. J. An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in the Torres Strait, Australia, 1995. Med J Aust. 1996 Sep 2;165(5):256–260. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1996.tb124960.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Hindiyeh M., Shulman L. M., Mendelson E., Weiss L., Grossman Z., Bin H. Isolation and characterization of West Nile virus from the blood of viremic patients during the 2000 outbreak in Israel. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):748–750. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010428. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Hubálek Z., Halouzka J. West Nile fever--a reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct;5(5):643–650. doi: 10.3201/eid0505.990505. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Jia X. Y., Briese T., Jordan I., Rambaut A., Chi H. C., Mackenzie J. S., Hall R. A., Scherret J., Lipkin W. I. Genetic analysis of West Nile New York 1999 encephalitis virus. Lancet. 1999 Dec 4;354(9194):1971–1972. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(99)05384-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Johnson D. J., Ostlund E. N., Pedersen D. D., Schmitt B. J. Detection of North American West Nile virus in animal tissue by a reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction assay. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):739–741. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010425. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Kulasekera V. L., Kramer L., Nasci R. S., Mostashari F., Cherry B., Trock S. C., Glaser C., Miller J. R. West Nile virus infection in mosquitoes, birds, horses, and humans, Staten Island, New York, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):722–725. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010421. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Lanciotti R. S., Kerst A. J., Nasci R. S., Godsey M. S., Mitchell C. J., Savage H. M., Komar N., Panella N. A., Allen B. C., Volpe K. E. Rapid detection of west nile virus from human clinical specimens, field-collected mosquitoes, and avian samples by a TaqMan reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov;38(11):4066–4071. doi: 10.1128/jcm.38.11.4066-4071.2000. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Lanciotti R. S., Roehrig J. T., Deubel V., Smith J., Parker M., Steele K., Crise B., Volpe K. E., Crabtree M. B., Scherret J. H. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science. 1999 Dec 17;286(5448):2333–2337. doi: 10.1126/science.286.5448.2333. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Mackenzie J. S., Broom A. K., Hall R. A., Johansen C. A., Lindsay M. D., Phillips D. A., Ritchie S. A., Russell R. C., Smith D. W. Arboviruses in the Australian region, 1990 to 1998. Commun Dis Intell. 1998 Jun 11;22(6):93–100. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Marfin A. A., Petersen L. R., Eidson M., Miller J., Hadler J., Farello C., Werner B., Campbell G. L., Layton M., Smith P. Widespread West Nile virus activity, eastern United States, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):730–735. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010423. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Miller B. R., Nasci R. S., Godsey M. S., Savage H. M., Lutwama J. J., Lanciotti R. S., Peters C. J. First field evidence for natural vertical transmission of West Nile virus in Culex univittatus complex mosquitoes from Rift Valley province, Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000 Feb;62(2):240–246. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2000.62.240. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Murgue B., Murri S., Zientara S., Durand B., Durand J. P., Zeller H. West Nile outbreak in horses in southern France, 2000: the return after 35 years. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):692–696. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010417. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Nasci R. S., Savage H. M., White D. J., Miller J. R., Cropp B. C., Godsey M. S., Kerst A. J., Bennett P., Gottfried K., Lanciotti R. S. West Nile virus in overwintering Culex mosquitoes, New York City, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):742–744. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010426. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Nash D., Mostashari F., Fine A., Miller J., O'Leary D., Murray K., Huang A., Rosenberg A., Greenberg A., Sherman M. The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. N Engl J Med. 2001 Jun 14;344(24):1807–1814. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200106143442401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Platonov A. E., Shipulin G. A., Shipulina O. Y., Tyutyunnik E. N., Frolochkina T. I., Lanciotti R. S., Yazyshina S., Platonova O. V., Obukhov I. L., Zhukov A. N. Outbreak of West Nile virus infection, Volgograd Region, Russia, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jan-Feb;7(1):128–132. doi: 10.3201/eid0701.010118. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Reiter P. Climate change and mosquito-borne disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Mar;109 (Suppl 1):141–161. doi: 10.1289/ehp.01109s1141. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Ritchie S. A., Phillips D., Broom A., Mackenzie J., Poidinger M., van den Hurk A. Isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from Culex annulirostris in Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997 Jan;56(1):80–84. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1997.56.80. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Savage H. M., Ceianu C., Nicolescu G., Karabatsos N., Lanciotti R., Vladimirescu A., Laiv L., Ungureanu A., Romanca C., Tsai T. F. Entomologic and avian investigations of an epidemic of West Nile fever in Romania in 1996, with serologic and molecular characterization of a virus isolate from mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999 Oct;61(4):600–611. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.61.600. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Scherret J. H., Poidinger M., Mackenzie J. S., Broom A. K., Deubel V., Lipkin W. I., Briese T., Gould E. A., Hall R. A. The relationships between West Nile and Kunjin viruses. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):697–705. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010418. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Steele K. E., Linn M. J., Schoepp R. J., Komar N., Geisbert T. W., Manduca R. M., Calle P. P., Raphael B. L., Clippinger T. L., Larsen T. Pathology of fatal West Nile virus infections in native and exotic birds during the 1999 outbreak in New York City, New York. Vet Pathol. 2000 May;37(3):208–224. doi: 10.1354/vp.37-3-208. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Swayne D. E., Beck J. R., Smith C. S., Shieh W. J., Zaki S. R. Fatal encephalitis and myocarditis in young domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus) caused by West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):751–753. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010429. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Tsai T. F., Popovici F., Cernescu C., Campbell G. L., Nedelcu N. I. West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania. Lancet. 1998 Sep 5;352(9130):767–771. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(98)03538-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. WORK T. H., HURLBUT H. S., TAYLOR R. M. Indigenous wild birds of the Nile Delta as potential West Nile virus circulating reservoirs. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1955 Sep;4(5):872–888. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1955.4.872. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Weinberger M., Pitlik S. D., Gandacu D., Lang R., Nassar F., Ben David D., Rubinstein E., Izthaki A., Mishal J., Kitzes R. West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000: epidemiologic aspects. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):686–691. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010416. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Weiss D., Carr D., Kellachan J., Tan C., Phillips M., Bresnitz E., Layton M., West Nile Virus Outbreak Response Working Group Clinical findings of West Nile virus infection in hospitalized patients, New York and New Jersey, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):654–658. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010409. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. White D. J., Kramer L. D., Backenson P. B., Lukacik G., Johnson G., Oliver J. A., Howard J. J., Means R. G., Eidson M., Gotham I. Mosquito surveillance and polymerase chain reaction detection of West Nile virus, New York State. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):643–649. doi: 10.3201/eid0704.010407. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Emerging Infectious Diseases are provided here courtesy of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

RESOURCES