Skip to main content
PMC home page
Emerging Infectious Diseases logoLink to Emerging Infectious Diseases
. 1998 Apr-Jun;4(2):149–158. doi: 10.3201/eid0402.980202

Wild primate populations in emerging infectious disease research: the missing link?

N D Wolfe 1, A A Escalante 1, W B Karesh 1, A Kilbourn 1, A Spielman 1, A A Lal 1
PMCID: PMC2640138  PMID: 9621185

Abstract

Wild primate populations, an unexplored source of information regarding emerging infectious disease, may hold valuable clues to the origins and evolution of some important pathogens. Primates can act as reservoirs for human pathogens. As members of biologically diverse habitats, they serve as sentinels for surveillance of emerging pathogens and provide models for basic research on natural transmission dynamics. Since emerging infectious diseases also pose serious threats to endangered and threatened primate species, studies of these diseases in primate populations can benefit conservation efforts and may provide the missing link between laboratory studies and the well-recognized needs of early disease detection, identification, and surveillance.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (411.1 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Berkelman R. L., Pinner R. W., Hughes J. M. Addressing emerging microbial threats in the United States. JAMA. 1996 Jan 24;275(4):315–317. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Beverley-Burton M., Crichton V. F. Attempted experimental cross infections with mammalian guinea-worms, Dracunculus spp. (Nematoda: Dracunculoidea). Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1976 Sep;25(5):704–708. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1976.25.704. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Tuberculosis in imported nonhuman primates--United States, June 1990-May 1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1993 Jul 30;42(29):572–576. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Desrosiers R. C. HIV-1 origins. A finger on the missing link. Nature. 1990 May 24;345(6273):288–289. doi: 10.1038/345288a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Douglas J. D., Soike K. F., Raynor J. The incidence of poliovirus in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Lab Anim Care. 1970 Apr;20(2):265–268. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Eidson M., Tierney L. A., Rollag O. J., Becker T., Brown T., Hull H. F. Feline plague in New Mexico: risk factors and transmission to humans. Am J Public Health. 1988 Oct;78(10):1333–1335. doi: 10.2105/ajph.78.10.1333. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Escalante A. A., Ayala F. J. Phylogeny of the malarial genus Plasmodium, derived from rRNA gene sequences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Nov 22;91(24):11373–11377. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.24.11373. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Escalante A. A., Barrio E., Ayala F. J. Evolutionary origin of human and primate malarias: evidence from the circumsporozoite protein gene. Mol Biol Evol. 1995 Jul;12(4):616–626. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040241. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Fuller G. K., Lemma A., Haile T. Schistosomiasis in Omo National Park of southwest Ethiopia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1979 May;28(3):526–530. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1979.28.526. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Gouteux J. P., Noireau F., Staak C. The host preferences of Chrysops silacea and C. dimidiata (Diptera: Tabanidae) in an endemic area of Loa loa in the Congo. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1989 Apr;83(2):167–172. doi: 10.1080/00034983.1989.11812326. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Hafner M. S., Page R. D. Molecular phylogenies and host-parasite cospeciation: gophers and lice as a model system. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1995 Jul 29;349(1327):77–83. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1995.0093. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Hill A. V., Yates S. N., Allsopp C. E., Gupta S., Gilbert S. C., Lalvani A., Aidoo M., Davenport M., Plebanski M. Human leukocyte antigens and natural selection by malaria. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1994 Nov 29;346(1317):379–385. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1994.0155. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Holmes E. C., Nee S., Rambaut A., Garnett G. P., Harvey P. H. Revealing the history of infectious disease epidemics through phylogenetic trees. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1995 Jul 29;349(1327):33–40. doi: 10.1098/rstb.1995.0088. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Huet T., Cheynier R., Meyerhans A., Roelants G., Wain-Hobson S. Genetic organization of a chimpanzee lentivirus related to HIV-1. Nature. 1990 May 24;345(6273):356–359. doi: 10.1038/345356a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Jezek Z., Arita I., Mutombo M., Dunn C., Nakano J. H., Szczeniowski M. Four generations of probable person-to-person transmission of human monkeypox. Am J Epidemiol. 1986 Jun;123(6):1004–1012. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114328. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Jin M. J., Rogers J., Phillips-Conroy J. E., Allan J. S., Desrosiers R. C., Shaw G. M., Sharp P. M., Hahn B. H. Infection of a yellow baboon with simian immunodeficiency virus from African green monkeys: evidence for cross-species transmission in the wild. J Virol. 1994 Dec;68(12):8454–8460. doi: 10.1128/jvi.68.12.8454-8460.1994. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Jolly CJoff, Phillips-Conroy J. E., Turner T. R., Broussard S., Allan J. S. SIVagm incidence over two decades in a natural population of Ethiopian grivet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops aethiops). J Med Primatol. 1996 Apr;25(2):78–83. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.1996.tb00198.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Kalter S. S., Heberling R. L., Cooke A. W., Barry J. D., Tian P. Y., Northam W. J. Viral infections of nonhuman primates. Lab Anim Sci. 1997 Oct;47(5):461–467. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Khabbaz R. F., Heneine W., George J. R., Parekh B., Rowe T., Woods T., Switzer W. M., McClure H. M., Murphey-Corb M., Folks T. M. Brief report: infection of a laboratory worker with simian immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jan 20;330(3):172–177. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199401203300304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Le Guenno B., Formenty P., Formentry P., Wyers M., Gounon P., Walker F., Boesch C. Isolation and partial characterisation of a new strain of Ebola virus. Lancet. 1995 May 20;345(8960):1271–1274. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(95)90925-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. LeDuc J. W. World Health Organization strategy for emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 24;275(4):318–320. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Liu H. F., Goubau P., Van Brussel M., Van Laethem K., Chen Y. C., Desmyter J., Vandamme A. M. The three human T-lymphotropic virus type I subtypes arose from three geographically distinct simian reservoirs. J Gen Virol. 1996 Feb;77(Pt 2):359–368. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-77-2-359. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Mak J. W., Cheong W. H., Yen P. K., Lim P. K., Chan W. C. Studies on the epidemiology of subperiodic Brugia malayi in Malaysia: problems in its control. Acta Trop. 1982 Sep;39(3):237–245. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. McCutchan T. F., Kissinger J. C., Touray M. G., Rogers M. J., Li J., Sullivan M., Braga E. M., Krettli A. U., Miller L. H. Comparison of circumsporozoite proteins from avian and mammalian malarias: biological and phylogenetic implications. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Oct 15;93(21):11889–11894. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.21.11889. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Meslin F. X. Surveillance and control of emerging zoonoses. World Health Stat Q. 1992;45(2-3):200–207. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Meyers W. M., Gormus B. J., Walsh G. P., Baskin G. B., Hubbard G. B. Naturally acquired and experimental leprosy in nonhuman primates. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1991 Apr;44(4 Pt 2):24–27. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1991.44.24. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Michler R. E. Xenotransplantation: risks, clinical potential, and future prospects. Emerg Infect Dis. 1996 Jan-Mar;2(1):64–70. doi: 10.3201/eid0201.960111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Mindell D. P. Positive selection and rates of evolution in immunodeficiency viruses from humans and chimpanzees. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Apr 16;93(8):3284–3288. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.8.3284. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Morell V. Chimpanzee outbreak heats up search for Ebola origin. Science. 1995 May 19;268(5213):974–975. doi: 10.1126/science.7754392. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Mutombo M., Arita I., Jezek Z. Human monkeypox transmitted by a chimpanzee in a tropical rain-forest area of Zaire. Lancet. 1983 Apr 2;1(8327):735–737. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(83)92027-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Myers G., MacInnes K., Korber B. The emergence of simian/human immunodeficiency viruses. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1992 Mar;8(3):373–386. doi: 10.1089/aid.1992.8.373. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Palmer A. E. B virus, Herpesvirus simiae: historical perspective. J Med Primatol. 1987;16(2):99–130. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Peeters M., Fransen K., Delaporte E., Van den Haesevelde M., Gershy-Damet G. M., Kestens L., van der Groen G., Piot P. Isolation and characterization of a new chimpanzee lentivirus (simian immunodeficiency virus isolate cpz-ant) from a wild-captured chimpanzee. AIDS. 1992 May;6(5):447–451. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199205000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Peeters M., Janssens W., Fransen K., Brandful J., Heyndrickx L., Koffi K., Delaporte E., Piot P., Gershy-Damet G. M., van der Groen G. Isolation of simian immunodeficiency viruses from two sooty mangabeys in Côte d'Ivoire: virological and genetic characterization and relationship to other HIV type 2 and SIVsm/mac strains. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1994 Oct;10(10):1289–1294. doi: 10.1089/aid.1994.10.1289. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Qari S. H., Shi Y. P., Pieniazek N. J., Collins W. E., Lal A. A. Phylogenetic relationship among the malaria parasites based on small subunit rRNA gene sequences: monophyletic nature of the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 1996 Aug;6(1):157–165. doi: 10.1006/mpev.1996.0068. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Qari S. H., Shi Y. P., Povoa M. M., Alpers M. P., Deloron P., Murphy G. S., Harjosuwarno S., Lal A. A. Global occurrence of Plasmodium vivax-like human malaria parasite. J Infect Dis. 1993 Dec;168(6):1485–1489. doi: 10.1093/infdis/168.6.1485. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Robles M., Aregullin M., West J., Rodriguez E. Recent studies on the zoopharmacognosy, pharmacology and neurotoxicology of sesquiterpene lactones. Planta Med. 1995 Jun;61(3):199–203. doi: 10.1055/s-2006-958055. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Rodriguez-del Valle M., Quakyi I. A., Amuesi J., Quaye J. T., Nkrumah F. K., Taylor D. W. Detection of antigens and antibodies in the urine of humans with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Clin Microbiol. 1991 Jun;29(6):1236–1242. doi: 10.1128/jcm.29.6.1236-1242.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Rolland R. M., Hausfater G., Marshall B., Levy S. B. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria in wild primates: increased prevalence in baboons feeding on human refuse. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1985 Apr;49(4):791–794. doi: 10.1128/aem.49.4.791-794.1985. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Skolnick A. A. Newfound genetic defect hints at clues for developing novel antimalarial agents. JAMA. 1993 Apr 14;269(14):1765–1765. doi: 10.1001/jama.269.14.1765. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Stephenson J. Findings on host resistance genes for infectious diseases are pointing the way to drugs, vaccines. JAMA. 1996 May 15;275(19):1464–1465. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Suleman M. A., Johnson B. J., Tarara R., Sayer P. D., Ochieng D. M., Muli J. M., Mbete E., Tukei P. M., Ndirangu D., Kago S. An outbreak of poliomyelitis caused by poliovirus type I in captive black and white colobus monkeys (Colobus abyssinicus kikuyuensis) in Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1984;78(5):665–669. doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(84)90235-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Tajima F., Nei M. Estimation of evolutionary distance between nucleotide sequences. Mol Biol Evol. 1984 Apr;1(3):269–285. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040317. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Tarara R., Suleman M. A., Sapolsky R., Wabomba M. J., Else J. G. Tuberculosis in wild olive baboons, Papio cynocephalus anubis (Lesson), in Kenya. J Wildl Dis. 1985 Apr;21(2):137–140. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-21.2.137. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Waters A. P., Higgins D. G., McCutchan T. F. Evolutionary relatedness of some primate models of Plasmodium. Mol Biol Evol. 1993 Jul;10(4):914–923. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040038. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Wilson M. E. Travel and the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995 Apr-Jun;1(2):39–46. doi: 10.3201/eid0102.950201. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Emerging Infectious Diseases are provided here courtesy of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

RESOURCES