Skip to main content
NCBI home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2010 Jul 1.
Published in final edited form as: Women Health. 2009 Jul–Aug;49(5):441–474. doi: 10.1080/03630240903238800

Creating the “desired mindset”: Philip Morris’s efforts to improve its corporate image among women

Patricia A McDaniel 1, Ruth E Malone 2
PMCID: PMC2791497  NIHMSID: NIHMS142375  PMID: 19851947

Abstract

Through analysis of tobacco company documents, we explored how and why Philip Morris sought to enhance its corporate image among American women. Philip Morris regarded women as an influential group. To improve its image among women, while keeping tobacco off their organizational agendas, the company sponsored women’s groups and programs. It also sought to appeal to women it defined as “active moms” by advertising its commitment to domestic violence victims. It was more successful in securing women’s organizations as allies than active moms. Increasing tobacco’s visibility as a global women’s health issue may require addressing industry influence.

Introduction

Globally, approximately 250 million women smoke (Shafey et al. 2009). While men’s smoking rates have peaked or are declining, women’s rates continue to rise (Greaves 2007). The World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that 25% of women will smoke by 2025 (Greaves 2007). As a result, women will bear a significant burden of tobacco-caused disease, including a variety of cancers (e.g., cancers of the lung, mouth, throat, larynx, liver, bladder, kidney, stomach, cervix and pancreas), cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, stroke, ulcer, osteoporosis, and reduced fertility (Shafey et al. 2009). Although it has long been assumed that “women who smoke like men, die like men who smoke” (U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare 1979, p. i), recent research indicates that women smokers are at higher risk than men of developing lung cancer – one of the most deadly of cancers – and colon cancer at the same level of smoking (Payne 2001; American College of Gastroenterology October 6, 2008).

Marketing is key to the creation and spread of the tobacco epidemic among women. Tobacco companies first singled out women in higher income nations in the 1920s as an important target market, creating cigarette advertising imagery designed to appeal to women – including associations with women’s emancipation -- and introducing cigarette brands specifically for them (Amos and Haglund 2000; Ernster 1986; Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids et al. 2009). They have employed similar strategies when encouraging women in low and middle income countries to take up smoking (Greaves, Jategaonkar, and Sanchez 2006; Lee et al. 2009; Ernster et al. 2000). But while cigarette marketing efforts directed at women have received considerable scholarly attention (Anderson, Glantz, and Ling 2005; Toll and Ling 2005; O’Keefe and Pollay 1996; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2001; Boyd, Boyd, and Greenlee 2003; Barbeau, Leavy-Sperounis, and Balbach 2004), less attention has been paid to how tobacco companies market themselves to women through image enhancement activities.

Image enhancement is important to tobacco companies because negative public opinion contributes to a climate supportive of tobacco control policies and programs (Chapman and Freeman 2008). Negativity toward the tobacco industry also has damaging effects on stock price, political influence, and employee morale (Smith and Malone 2003; McDaniel and Malone 2009), reduces the likelihood of smoking among youth and increases intentions to quit among adult smokers (Bauer et al. 2000; Farrelly et al. 2005; Pierce et al. 1998; Hammond et al. 2006). By contrast, a positive corporate image may distract public attention from the lethality of the industry’s products, create opposition to tobacco control measures or support for tobacco industry positions, and increase the social acceptability of smoking (Rosenberg and Siegel 2001; Tuckson 1989). It may also discourage juries from holding tobacco companies liable for the harms caused by their products (Rosenberg and Siegel 2001). In this paper, we describe how and why Philip Morris (PM), the largest tobacco company in the U.S., sought to enhance its image among American women; we also discuss how this strategy is being repeated globally, and explore the implications for women’s health and tobacco control.

Methods

Litigation against the tobacco industry has resulted in the release of more than 9 million previously undisclosed industry documents (Bero 2003; Malone and Balbach 2000). Scanned PDF versions of these documents are archived at the University of California San Francisco library in a full-text searchable electronic repository (http://www.legacy.library.ucsf.edu/). We searched the archives using a snowball sampling method, beginning with broad search terms (“women’s organizations”) and using retrieved documents to identify more specific search terms, including names of women’s organizations (“Women Work”), tobacco company public relations initiatives directed at women (“the women’s strategy”), file locations, and reference (Bates) numbers.. We identified approximately 350 documents, the majority from Philip Morris, spanning 1978–2002. More detailed information on tobacco industry documents websites and search strategies has been previously published (Malone and Balbach 2000; MacKenzie, Collin, and Lee 2003). We also searched the Internet for websites belonging to women’s organizations funded by the tobacco industry.

We analyzed documents using a hermeneutic, interpretive approach (Hill 1993; Taylor 1985b, 1985a; Van Manen 1990). In this type of historical analysis, “the focus of attention is on meanings … Each document [is] reviewed carefully and the ‘taken for granted’ assumptions and viewpoints of the author[s] drawn out” (Forster 1995, p. 151). Consistent with the analytic tradition within which we were working, we specified no pre-analytic conceptual schema and did not create a coding matrix (Packer 1985; Packer and Addison 1989; Benner 1994). To develop this interpretive account, the first author reviewed all documents, and both authors reviewed selected key documents and took detailed notes. We relied upon iterative reviews and discussions of documents and notes to identify common themes and “clusters of meaning” (Forster 1995).

Results

Funding Women’s Organizations

American tobacco companies first turned their attention to women’s organizations in the late 1970s, when women’s political influence was growing amid the second wave of the women’s movement (Bowling 1979). PM’s corporate affairs department pointed out in 1978 that “the women’s movement has the potential to affect us as a corporation—politically, economically, and socially” (Philip Morris 1978). As a result, PM planned to “establish mutually beneficial relationships with leaders and members of major women’s organizations” (Philip Morris 1978). That year, the company made a “first of its kind” donation to the National Organization of Women’s (NOW) conference, to build “a foundation for continuing association with this increasingly influential group” (Philip Morris 1978), “increase PM’s visibility among women” (Philip Morris 1978), and promote PM’s image as a responsible corporation (Blake et al. 1984) that was “genuinely concerned” with women’s progress (Philip Morris 1981b). In subsequent years, PM and other tobacco companies funded a variety of women’s political and professional organizations (see table).

Table 1.

Examples of women’s organizations supported by the tobacco industry, by year

Political or Public Policy Organizations Tobacco Company Supporter, Year(s) of Support, Contribution Health Issues Addressed on Current Website
American Association of University Women RJR: 1982, $5,000 (Horrigan Jr. 1982); 1990, $22,000 (RJ Reynolds 1990); 1991, $22,000 (RJ Reynolds 1991a) None
Catalyst for Women PM: 1995, $24,000 (Lai 1995); 1996, $31,000 (Philip Morris 1995a); 1998, amount unspecified (Williams 2001); 1999, amount unspecified (Rosenberg and Sigel 2001)
RJR: 1997, amount unspecified (Rosenberg and Sigel 2001)		 None
Center for the American Woman and Politics RJR: 1991, amount unspecified (Williams 1991b)
PM: 1991, amount unspecified (Williams 1991b); 1995, $55.26 (Philip Morris 1995b)		 None
Center for Women’s Policy Studies PM: $25,000, year unspecified (Williams 1991b; The Advocacy Institute 1998) Reproductive rights and AIDS (Center for Women’s Policy Studies 2006)
Emily’s List PM: 1991, $25,000 (shared with the Women’s Campaign Fund and the National Women’s Political Caucus) (Williams 1991a) None
Illinois Women in Government PM: 1991, $5,000 (Wolfe 1993) None
International Center for Research on Women Altria: 2009, amount unspecified (aInternational Center for Research on Women 2009a) HIV/AIDS, nutrition, reproductive health, and violence against women. (bInternational Center for Research on Women 2009b) (Smoking mentioned in passing in reports on HIV and domestic violence.)
League of Women Voters PM: 1991, $2,000 (Wolfe 1993) Health care reform (League of Women Voters 2009)
Ms. Foundation for Women PM: 1991, $5,000 (Wolfe 1993); 1995, $5,000 (Lai 1995) Reproductive rights, gender- based violence, and AIDS (Ms. Foundation for Women 2009)
National Commission on Working Women RJR: 1982, $3,000 (Horrigan Jr. 1982); 1990, $10,000 (RJ Reynolds 1990); 1991, $10,000 (RJ Reynolds 1991a); 1992, $10,000 (RJ Reynolds 1993b); 1993, $10,000 (proposed) (RJ Reynolds 1993b) No website found
National Conference of State Legislatures Women’s Network RJR: 1987, amount unspecified (Ainsworth 1987a); 1998, $1,000 (Durlam 1997)
PM: 1981, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1981b); 1999, $500 (Philip Morris 1999a)
TI: 1986, amount unspecified (Stuntz 1986a); 1989, $2,000 (Tobacco Institute 1989)		 Women’s health across the lifespan, including nutrition, immunization, and tobacco use. Website provides links to sources of information on variety of tobacco issues. (National Conference for State Legislatures 2009)
National Council for Research on Women PM: 1999, amount unspecified (Rosenberg and Sigel 2001) Health care access, health disparities, health insurance, reproductive health, girls’ health (including tobacco use). (The National Council for Research on Women 2007)
National Order of Women Legislators/National Foundation for Women Legislators PM: 1981, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1981b); 1988, $1,500 (Philip Morris 1989c); 1997, $20,000 (Philip Morris 1999a); 2000, amount unspecified (McDaniel 2000)
TI: 1983, $2,000 (Wells 1983); 1984, $500 (Tobacco Institute 1985); 1986, $1,000 (Wells 1986); 1993, $500 (National Order Of Women Legislators 1993)		 Alternative and complimentary medicine; nutritional deficiencies in children, adults and seniors; and treating and preventing child sexual abuse. (National Foundation for Women Legislators 2007)
National Organization for Women PM: 1978, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1978); 1991, $2,000 (Wolfe 1993) Priority health issues are reproductive rights and violence against women; (National Organization for Women 2009)links to fact sheets on women’s health issues, including tobacco use. (National Organization for Women Foundation 2007)
National Organization for Women Legal Defense and Education Fund (now known as Legal Momentum) RJR: 1983, $2,500 (proposed) (RJ Reynolds 1983); 1987, $3,000 (Bass 1987a); 1990,$3,500 (RJ Reynolds 1990); 1991, $5,000 (RJ Reynolds 1991a)
PM: 1991,$5,000 (Wolfe 1993); 1995, $500 (Philip Morris 1995a)		 Reproductive rights and violence against women (Legal Momentum 2009)
National Women’s Law Center PM: 1991, $5,000 (Wolfe 1993) Health care and reproductive rights; site includes 2003 report “Women and Smoking: A National and State-by-State Report Card.” (National Women’s Law Center 2003)
National Women’s Political Caucus PM: 1977, $600 (National Women’s Political Caucus 1977); 1979, amount unspecified (Goldsmith, Millhiser, and Weissman 1979); 1981, amount unspecified (Knox 1988); 1983, amount unspecified (Bowling 1983); 1985, amount unspecified (Knox 1988); 1987 amount unspecified (Knox 1988); 1989, amount unspecified (Knox 1988); 1993, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1993); 1994, $25,000 (Philip Morris 1994b); 1995, $76,466.62 (Philip Morris 1995b)
RJR: 1990, $10,000 (RJ Reynolds 1990)
TI: 1986, amount unspecified (Stuntz 1986c)		 None
New York Women’s Agenda PM: 1994, $2,500 (Philip Morris 1995a); 1995, $16,500 (Philip Morris 1995a); 1996, $3,500 (Philip Morris 1995a) Reproductive freedom (New York Women’s Agenda 2009b)
Republican Women’s Leadership Forum US Tobacco: 1998, amount unspecified (Rosenberg and Sigel 2001) No website found
Wider Opportunities for Women PM: 1991, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1991) None
Women in Government Relations Leader Foundation PM: 1995, $5,000 (Lai 1995) No website found
Women Work PM: 1995, $7,500 (Philip Morris 1995b) None
Women’s Campaign Fund RJR: 2000, amount unspecified (Williams 2001)
PM: 1992, amount unspecified (The Advocacy Institute 1998)
TI: 1997, $5,000 (Tobacco Institute 1997); 1998, $5,000 (Tobacco Institute 1998)		 None
Women Executives in Government RJR: 1990, $35,000 (RJ Reynolds 1990); 1993, $10,000 (recommended) (RJ Reynolds 1993a) No website found
Women Executives in State Government RJR: 1986, amount unspecified (Ainsworth 1986); 1987, $30,000 (Williams 1991a); 1988, $30,000 (Williams 1991a); 1989, $30,000 (Williams 1991a); 1990, $35,000 (RJ Reynolds 1990); 1991, $35,000 (RJ Reynolds 1991a) 1995, amount unspecified (Shore 1995); 1996, amount unspecified (Shore 1996); 1997, $1,000 (Shore 1997)
PM: 1994, $10,000 (Chann and Walls 1994); 1995, $5,150 (Philip Morris 1995b); 1998, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1998); 1999, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1999d)		 No website found
Women’s Research and Education Institute (affiliate of Congressional Caucus for Women’s Issues) PM: 1995, $30,000 (Philip Morris 1995b)
RJR: 1982, $22,000 (Horrigan Jr. 1982); 1989, $75,000 (Williams 1991a); 1990, $75,000 (RJ Reynolds 1990);1991,$75,000 (RJ Reynolds 1991a); 1993, $56,000 (proposed) (RJ Reynolds 1993b)
TI: 1992, $1,500 (Tobacco Institute 1992)		 Mentions women’s health in general – no specific mention of tobacco. (Women’s Research and Education Institute 2009)
Business/professional
American Business Women’s Association PM: 1978, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1978) None
American Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs Company and amount unspecified (Williams 1991b) No website found
American Women in Radio and Television PM: 1991, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1991); 1994, $5,000 (American Women in Radio and Television 1994); 1995, $7,620 (Philip Morris 1995b); 1996, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1996); 1998, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1998) None
Business and Professional Women’s Foundation RJR: 1983, amount unspecified (RJ Reynolds 1983);1985, $5,000 (Bass 1985);1987, $5,000 (Bass 1987b)
PM 1989, $6,500 (Jones-Rimple 1989); 1990, samples (Moore 1990)		 Legislative priorities include HEART for Women Act (to improve the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of heart disease and stroke) and reproductive rights; no mention of tobacco. (Business and Professional Women’s Foundation 2009)
Executive Women International PM: 1998, amount unspecified (Gannon 1999); 2001, $3,500 (Philip Morris 2001a); 2002, $3,500 (Philip Morris 2000d); 2003, $3,500 (Philip Morris 2002a) None
Financial Women’s Association PM: 1996, up to $15,000 (Philip Morris 1995a); 1997, amount unspecified (Bartlett 1997) None
International Women’s Media Foundation PM: 1997, $6,000 (Philip Morris 1997e); 2000, $5,000 (Philip Morris 2000d) Brief mention of tobacco advertising in profile of health journalist. (Henk 2005)
National Association of Women Business Owners PM: 1991, conducted workshop (Philip Morris 1991); 1997, $1,000 (Philip Morris 1997e); 2000, $1,000 (Philip Morris 2000d); 2002, $11,000 (Philip Morris 2002a); 2003, $1,000 (Philip Morris 2002a) None
Society of Women Engineers PM: 2001, $5,000 (Philip Morris 2001a) None
Women’s Business Council PM: 1995, $1,3097.70 (Philip Morris 1995b) None
Women in Communications Lorillard: 1982, $1,000 (Ridgway 1982) No website found
Minority women
Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority (national and local chapters) BW: 1979, samples (McKeown 1979); 1984, samples (Bateman 1984); 1986, samples (Bateman 1986)
PM: 1981, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1981a); 1984–1990, samples (Johnson 1990); 1997, $2,500 (Philip Morris 1997b); 2003, $2,500 (Philip Morris 2002a)
RJR: 1974–1983, amount unspecified (Smitherman 1983); 1984, samples (RJ Reynolds 1984); 1985, $250 (Lewis 1985a); 1986, amount unspecified (RJ Reynolds 1986); 1987, samples (Spainhour 1987); 1988, amount unspecified (RJ Reynolds 1988)		 Obesity, fitness, cancer research, hypertension and diabetes prevention, and domestic violence. (Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority 2009)
Asian Pacific American Women’s Leadership Institute PM: 1995–1997, $45,000 (Philip Morris 1997b) None
Black Women In Publishing PM: 1988, $1,000 and samples (Philip Morris 1989b) No website found
Black Women’s Agenda PM: 2000, $5,000 (Philip Morris 2000c) No website found
Coalition of 100 Black Women (local and national chapters) PM: 1979, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1979b); 1985, amount unspecified (Maxwell 1985); 1988, $5,000 and samples (Philip Morris 1989b); 1989, $200 (Philip Morris 1989a); 1994, $5,000 (Bell-Stevens 1994); 1995, $3,534.36 (Philip Morris 1995b); 1999, $7,692 (Philip Morris 2000c); 2000, amount unspecified (Dowdell 2000); 2001, amount unspecified (Washington 2000)
RJR: 1991, $3,000 (RJ Reynolds 1991b); 1993, amount unspecified (Rixter 1993); 1997, $500 (Rixter and Suggs 1997)
BW: 1995, $300 (Brown & Williamson 1995)		 HIV (National Coalition of 100 Black Women 2008)
Coro Foundation Leadership Program PM: 1985, amount unspecified (Maxwell 1985) None
Delta Sigma Theta Sorority (national and local chapters) BW: 1979, samples (McKeown 1979); 1985, samples (Bateman 1985)
Lorillard: 1984, samples (Lorillard 1983)
PM: 1988, $26,600 and samples (Philip Morris 1989b); 1999, $2,500 (Keenan 1999); 2000, $500 (Philip Morris 2002a)
RJR: 1983, samples (Sharp 1983); 1984, samples (RJ Reynolds 1984); 1985, amount unspecified (Lewis 1985b); 1990, $500 (RJ Reynolds 1989); 1997, $600 (RJ Reynolds 1997)		 Physical and mental health; heart disease; no mention of smoking. (Delta Sigma Theta Sorority 2009)
Las Mujeres of the League of United Latin American Citizens PM: 1988, $5,000 (Philip Morris 1989b) No website found
Latin Women in Action PM: 1997, $1,500 (Philip Morris 1997c) Drug and alcohol abuse; suicide, depression, troubled youth and their families, HIV; domestic violence; prenatal care. (Latin Women in Action 2009)
Mexican American Women’s National Association PM: 1988, $1,000 and samples (Philip Morris 1989b); 1995, $500 (Philip Morris 1995b); 1998, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1998); 2000, $15,000 (Echevarria 2000) None
National Association of Black Women Attorneys PM: 1978, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1978) No website found
National Association of Minority Women in Business PM: 1988, $500 (Philip Morris 1989b) No website found
National Association of Negro Business and Professional Women’s Clubs PM: 1986, amount unspecified (Hopkins 1986); 1988, $12,000 and samples (Philip Morris 1989b); 1993, amount unspecified (Fuller 1993); 1995, $500 (Philip Morris 1995b); 1998, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1998)
RJR: 1993, amount unspecified (Ogburn 1993)		 None
National Association of University Women RJR: 1984, samples (RJ Reynolds 1984); 1986, amount unspecified (Lewis 1986) None
National Black Caucus of State Legislators Women’s Caucus PM: 1988, $1,000 (Philip Morris 1989b) No website found
National Council of Jewish Women PM: 1995, $1,000 (Lai 1995) Reproductive health, domestic violence, healthcare reform, mental health; no mention of tobacco and health. (National Council of Jewish Women 2009)
National Council of Negro Women (national and local chapters) RJR: 1982, $3000 (Horrigan Jr. 1982); 1983, $3000 (RJ Reynolds 1983); 1986, $400 (Washington 1985); 1990, $8,000 (RJ Reynolds 1990); 1991, amount unspecified (Ruffin 1991); 1997, $1,000 (Bond et al. 1997)
PM: 1988, $1,900 and samples (Philip Morris 1989b); 1990, $1,000 (Harrington 1990); 1991, $1,000 (Ison 1991); 1992, $4,000 (Philip Morris 1992); 1998, $21,000 (Philip Morris 1997d); 1999, $37,500 (Philip Morris 1999b); 2000, $34,000 (Philip Morris 2000c); 2001, $500 (Philip Morris 2001a); 2002, $1,000 (Philip Morris 2002a); 2003, $4,000 (Philip Morris 2002a)
BW: 1995, (Brown & Williamson 1995)		 Obesity, heart disease, diabetes, HIV, HPV, fibroids; no mention of tobacco. (National Council of Negro Women 2009)
National Federation of Black Women Business Owners PM: 1995, (Philip Morris 1995b); 2000, $8,000 (Philip Morris 2000c) No website found
National Hispana Leadership Institute RJR: 1993, $10,000 (proposed) (RJ Reynolds 1993b); 1994, amount unspecified (RJ Reynolds 1994); 1995, amount unspecified (Jackson 1995); 1997, amount unspecified (Rosenberg and Sigel 2001) None
National Political Congress of Black Women PM: 1988, samples (Philip Morris 1989b); 1994, $2,500 (Philip Morris 1994a); 1995, amount unspecified (Philip Morris 1995d); 1997, $2,500 (Philip Morris 1997a); 2000, $5,000 (Philip Morris 2000c) No website found
Organization of Chinese American Women PM: 1997, $500 (Philip Morris 1997e) None
US Hispanic Women’s Chamber of Commerce PM: 1991, amount unspecified (Gomez 1991) Recommends screenings for cholesterol, blood pressure, vision, skin, breast and cervical cancer. (U.S. Hispanic Women’s Chamber of Commerce 2009) No mention of tobacco.
Zeta Delta Phi Sorority RJR: 1984, samples (RJ Reynolds 1984) No website found
Zeta Phi Beta Sorority Lorillard: 1987, samples (Griffen 1987)
RJR: 1984, samples (RJ Reynolds 1984); 1985, samples (Fishel 1985); 1986, $100 (Fishel 1986); 1987, $100 (Fishel 1987)		 Prenatal care (Zeta Phi Beta Sorority 2005)
Community Development
Midwest Women’s Center PM: 1991, $2,000 (Wolfe 1993) No website found
National Council of Jewish Women, New York PM: 1995, $1,000 (Lai 1995) Reproductive choice and domestic violence (National Council of Jewish Women New York 2009)
New York Women’s Foundation PM: 1995, $5,500 (Lai 1995) Supports organizations and programs that treat health as a fundamental right, including those that “protect and promote the right to clean indoor and outdoor environments.” (The New York Women’s Foundation 2009)
YWCA (local and national chapters) BW: 1995, $750 (Brown & Williamson 1995)
PM 1995, $25,000 (Philip Morris 1995a); 1996, $25,000 (Philip Morris 1995a); 2000, $42,900 (Philip Morris 2000d); 2001, $11,500 (Philip Morris 2001a); 2002, $5,000 (Philip Morris 2002a); 2003, $6,000 (Philip Morris 2002a)		 Report “Beauty at Any Cost” mentions that smoking causes lung cancer. (YWCA 2008)
Women’s Action Alliance RJR: 1982, $3,500 (Horrigan Jr. 1982); 1987, $4,000 (Bass 1987c) Organization dissolved in 1997
Women in Action RJR: 1997, $1,000 (RJ Reynolds 1997) None
Equal Rights
National Women’s Law Center PM: 1991, $5,000 (Wolfe 1993)
RJR: 1990, $500 (RJ Reynolds 1990)		 Affordable health care; reproductive choices, women and smoking. (National Women’s Law Center 2009)
Women’s Legal Defense Fund PM: 1995, $5,000 (Lai 1995) No website found
Leadership network
Women’s Forum (national, international and local branches) RJR: 1987, amount unspecified (Ainsworth 1987b); 1997, $200 (Shore and Smith 1997)
PM: 1988, $100,000 (Philip Morris 1988)		 None
Open in a new tab

Abbreviations: BW, Brown and Williamson; PM, Philip Morris; RJR, RJ Reynolds; TI, Tobacco Institute

However, PM recognized a potential stumbling block with women’s groups. PM’s corporate affairs executive Jeannine Dowling asserted in 1984 that “women might be … our natural enemies” due to their negative feelings about tobacco (Blake et al. 1984). Her strategy for converting this natural enmity into friendship was to mention PM’s non-tobacco products (which, at the time, included beer and soft drinks), thereby “giv[ing] them a way to support [PM]” (Blake et al. 1984). Personal contacts also helped “put…a smile and a face on the name of the corporation” (Blake et al. 1984).

Funding women’s organizations brought tobacco companies several benefits, including lasting gratitude from the organizations’ leaders. In 1991, the executive director of the Women’s Campaign Fund praised the tobacco industry for its early willingness to fund women’s groups, stating that “they were there for us when nobody else was” (Williams 1991b). In 1997, Muriel Fox, a co-founder of NOW, personally thanked PM “for being such a dear and thoughtful friend” (Philip Morris 1997f).

An additional (and arguably more significant) benefit was the potential to influence groups’ agendas. In 1979, PM’s corporate affairs department described how the company had established “two-way communications” with women’s organizations, including “agenda participation with the National Commission on Working Women’s annual meeting” (Philip Morris 1979a). Similarly, PM vice president of corporate affairs Guy Smith noted that he was able to help set the agenda for the National Women’s Political Caucus 20th anniversary conference in 1991 (Smith 1990).

It is unknown whether PM steered these groups’ attention away from smoking as a women’s health issue, or if smoking had not yet registered as an issue of concern (particularly in 1979). However, the tobacco industry’s lobbying organization, the Tobacco Institute (TI), hinted that continued tobacco industry funding of at least some women’s organizations was contingent on the organizations’ ignoring the issue. The TI’s vice president of corporate affairs Susan Stuntz reported in 1986 that during “intensive discussions with representatives of key women’s organizations … most have assured us that, for the time being, smoking is not a priority issue for them. We agreed to sponsor programs of the women’s network of the National Council of State Legislators” (Stuntz 1986b). Some evidence suggests that smoking remains a low priority issue for women’s organizations that have received funding from the tobacco industry: of 25 such organizations that addressed some aspect of women’s health on their websites as of March 2009, only 7 mentioned tobacco or smoking (see table).

Another benefit of tobacco company contributions to women’s organizations was the creation of allies who could be called upon to defend the industry from regulation. For example, in 1990, on behalf of PM, the National Association of Negro Business and Professional Women wrote letters to President Bush opposing an increase in the federal excise tax on cigarettes (Smith 1990). That same year, at the “behest” of PM and “out of gratitude” for the company’s support, American Women in Radio and Television wrote letters to Congress opposing a bill to limit cigarette advertising (Gomez 1991; American Women in Radio and Television 1990). In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Tobacco Institute successfully enlisted the League of Women Voters to join coalitions opposed to tobacco taxes in Illinois and clean indoor air ordinances in Beverly Hills, CA (Cole 1988; Ogilvy & Mather 1987; Strategy Group 1991).

If women’s organizations could not be secured as outspoken allies, PM regarded it as important to “freeze” them in neutral mode so that they did not support policies, such as cigarette advertising bans, that conflicted with tobacco company business objectives (Philip Morris 1995f, 1995c). As a PM public affairs department memo explained in 1995, “Our businesses are threatened in the legislative/regulatory arena by [tobacco control advocates’] identification and promotion of ‘victims’ such as women … these actions encourage the creation of a ‘class to be protected.’ NEUTRALIZE THAT THREAT BY NEUTRALIZING THE TARGETS” (capitalization in original) (Philip Morris 1995e) Funding women’s organizations was regarded as key to “neutralizing” them (Philip Morris 1995e). For example, in 1990, according to a tobacco industry consultant, the National Women’s Political Caucus took no official position on the issue of raising cigarette and alcohol taxes to help close New York state’s budget gap “due to large contributions from Philip Morris” (Strategy Group 1990).

When a funded organization spoke out against PM, continued funding could be jeopardized, as was evident in 1999, when the national Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), whose local chapters had received more than $70,000 in PM grants that year, signed a public letter calling on the company to change its cigarette marketing practices (YWCA 1999; Farlow 1999). PM’s vice president of corporate affairs Ellen Merlo noted in an internal email that “[W]e certainly do not require that worthy recipients speak out for us, but if they are publicly against us, [I] would give thought to continued support” (Merlo 1999). PM continued to fund YWCA affiliates in 2000 and 2001 (Philip Morris 2000d, 2001a), but we found no evidence of funding of the national organization.

Participating in Women’s Organizations

While continued funding was regarded as key to “neutralizing” groups, in 1995, PM’s public affairs department also recommended supporting “projects which more deeply involve us with each target group organization -- making ourselves impossible to replace with money alone” (Philip Morris 1995e). PM implemented a “Women’s Strategy,” to “extend PM’s reach into the foremost professional women’s organizations” (Philip Morris 1995a). Plans to implement this strategy included buying memberships in women’s organizations (e.g., New York Women’s Agenda, a coalition of professional women’s and community activist organizations, and the American Association of University Women) for PM and Dede Thompson Bartlett, vice president of corporate affairs programs, and buying seats or tables at organization events (e.g., the Financial Women’s Association annual meeting) (Philip Morris 1995a), where, presumably, PM executives could socialize with organization members. The Women’s Strategy also involved securing recognition for the “significant achievements” of PM’s female executives (Philip Morris 1995a). Between 1996 and 2001, six female senior managers at PM were inducted into the New York City YWCA’s Academy of Women Leaders (YWCA New York City 2009). The accolades also brought a greater level of organizational involvement. According to the YWCA, members of the Academy of Women Leaders served on advisory committees (YWCA New York City 2001).

PM also sought opportunities for its representatives to speak on women’s issues and to host organizational meetings. For example, in 2000, Bartlett co-chaired meetings on domestic violence for New York Women’s Agenda (Philip Morris 2000a) and co-hosted various conferences, including the Women Entrepreneurs’ Forum (Philip Morris 2000a). She also regularly hosted dinners on behalf of the New York Women’s Agenda and the Financial Women’s Association at PM’s corporate headquarters in New York (Bartlett 1997) and addressed smaller women’s organizations, such as the Duke University’s Women’s Studies program (Philip Morris 2000a).

Because there are a limited number of Women’s Strategy documents, we cannot determine the extent to which PM benefited from its involvements in women’s organizations. However, the organizations themselves advertise several benefits of corporate or individual membership. According to the Financial Women’s Association, member companies receive “increased recognition for their support of women’s leadership” (Financial Women’s Association 2008); members of the New York Women’s Agenda are promised “the opportunity to have a personal impact on [our] policy agendas” (New York Women’s Agenda 2009a).

Seeking Additional Allies

In 2001, PM launched a new “Women’s Initiative” to broaden its base of allied women’s organizations (Philip Morris 2001c). PM sought to identify women’s organizations who would “feel comfortable working with us,” “provide unsolicited endorsements” of the company, “invite Philip Morris to speak at their events,” and “work with Philip Morris on programs of mutual interest” (Philip Morris 2001c). PM was particularly interested in alliances with respected, credible women’s organizations that influenced public policy or philanthropy and, if possible, had “shared opportunity intersects” with PM (e.g., concerns with issues like underage drinking, nutrition, domestic violence, food safety) (Philip Morris 2001d).

During the first year, PM planned to develop, test (first with focus groups, then in test markets) and evaluate “three model programs of some kind” to reach women’s organizations (Philip Morris 2001b). It is unknown whether this plan was implemented. However, in early 2002, Women’s Initiative planners sought legal approval for letters to be sent to women (presumably those active in a women’s organization) inviting participation in one-on-one interviews with a PM representative (Bilodeau 2002; Berlind 2002; Abruzzo 2002); the intent was to determine what types of women-centered programs the company should support (Bilodeau 2002).

Co-opting “Active Moms”

In addition to trying to create positive relationships with women’s organizations, in 2000, PM also sought to improve its image among particular groups of women. That year, PM added white, African American, and Hispanic “active moms” -- socially or politically active mothers who “have an influential voice in their community” – as target audiences for its ongoing image enhancement program Philip Morris in the 21st Century (PM21) (Rosen 2000; Philip Morris 2000e). Initiated in 1997, PM21 was a response to a changing legal, regulatory, and public relations environment (Tesler and Malone 2008; Yang and Malone 2008).

In the mid- to late 1990s, the tobacco industry faced numerous state lawsuits to recover Medicaid costs related to tobacco-caused disease, a Department of Justice lawsuit accusing the tobacco industry of engaging in a conspiracy to deceive the public about the health effects of smoking, the Food and Drug Administration attempt to regulate nicotine as a drug and tobacco products as drug-delivery devices, and the public release of damaging internal tobacco company documents and whistleblower accounts of tobacco industry wrongdoing (Brandt 2007; Kessler 2000; Kessler 2006). PM21 initially targeted all adults (Roper Starch Worldwide 2001). In 2000, the campaign began targeting specific adult subgroups whose opinions PM considered influential and open to change, including “active moms,” who were regarded as a “critical group for politicians; ultimately reasonable and not ideological” (Philip Morris 1999c, 2000b).

Advertisements showcasing the company’s charitable contributions to various organizations, including those serving domestic violence victims, were a centerpiece of the PM21 campaign (Tesler and Malone 2008). With its new focus on “active moms,” PM sought ways to communicate to them its leadership on this important women’s issue (Philip Morris 2000f). According to PM21 planners, “active moms’” “current mindset” about the company consisted of a vague awareness of and appreciation for PM’s domestic violence efforts, overridden by the conviction that the company was “just trying to improve its image” (Philip Morris 2000g). The “desired mindset” that PM hoped to achieve through PM21 media efforts was one in which an active mom ignored the company’s dangerous products and focused instead on its sincere commitment to the important problem of domestic violence: “PM seems more open and responsible. … Even though they make products that concern me, they’re doing good things around d[omestic] v[iolence] and other issues I care about. D[omestic] v[iolence] is such a prevalent problem …. I get the feeling that PM really cares about it” (Philip Morris 2000g).

To help achieve this “desired mindset,” PM21 planners sought input from a market research firm about how to communicate to “active moms” that domestic violence was an important problem (Abruzzo et al. 2000). Based on focus group interviews, the firm advised PM that its communications should include statistics about the prevalence of the problem (e.g., “domestic violence is the leading cause of injury to women between the ages of 15 and 44 in the U.S.”) (KRC Research and Consulting 2000) and information about domestic violence in the workplace, should emphasize that domestic violence was “a problem that could affect anyone,” and should mention its impact on children (Abruzzo et al. 2000). Ironically, the same guidance could apply to efforts to communicate to active moms that tobacco is an important women’s health problem.

To reach “active moms,” PM relied on print and television advertisements showcasing survivors of domestic violence who received assistance from PM-sponsored programs (Philip Morris 2000b; Szczypka et al. 2007). In addition, the company sought to capitalize on earned media such as local newspaper and television coverage of check presentations to battered women shelters (Philip Morris 2000f). PM also created a brochure, “The Philip Morris Campaign against Domestic Violence” (Essential Action 2002) to be distributed at events and conferences attended by women (Echevarria 2000).

After learning about the company’s commitment to domestic violence programs, PM planners hoped that “active moms” would participate in these programs, endorse PM’s actions, and recognize PM as “a partner and leader in responding to D[omestic] V[iolence]” (Philip Morris 2000g). While it is unknown whether these goals were achieved, PM’s opinion polling suggested that the company’s widely advertised concern for domestic violence victims was only modestly successful. While there was a slight increase in the percentage of “active moms” viewing PM favorably the year after the advertising campaign began (37%, compared to 32% the year before), most “active moms” (44%) continued to view the company unfavorably (Roper Starch Worldwide 2001).

PM21 ended in 2001, replaced with a broader corporate responsibility initiative (Hirschhorn 2004). “Active moms” remained a key target audience (Hollis 2002). But rather than try to appeal to this group by showcasing its domestic violence programs, PM planned to focus on children, another issue important to active moms, by highlighting PM’s “responsible” marketing practices and “youth smoking prevention” program – a demonstrably ineffective program whose larger purpose is to curry favor with policymakers and prevent regulation (Philip Morris 2002b; Landman, Ling, and Glantz 2002; Wakefield et al. 2006). According to the company, a measure of success in five years would be an increase in the percentage of active moms who were “reasonably indifferent to tobacco issues” or who thought that tobacco issues had “been taken care of” (Philip Morris 2002b). We found no data on whether this goal was achieved.

PM’s Global Women-focused Initiatives

Although PM committed in 2000 to “end” domestic violence, in 2007 the company apparently stopped funding domestic violence programs in the U.S. (Philip Morris USA 2007). (Altria, its parent company, followed suit in 2008 (Altria 2009)). Instead, PM International (PMI) has taken up the challenge. PMI currently funds domestic violence programs in Switzerland, Italy, and “across the world” (Philip Morris International 2008). PMI also appears to be emulating PM’s strategy of seeking to establish relationships with influential women. In 2008, its Middle East affiliate was a major sponsor of the second annual New Arab Woman Forum, a conference that explored Arab women’s leadership in politics, business and society (Al-Iktissad Wal-Aamal Group 2008).

Discussion

Our study had limitations. The sheer size of the document databases meant that we may not have retrieved every relevant document. Some may have been destroyed or concealed by tobacco companies (Liberman 2002); others may have never been obtained in the legal discovery process. In addition, because only a limited number of documents existed concerning several recent women-focused PM initiatives, the full scope of these plans and the extent to which they were implemented were unknown. Nonetheless, our findings are consistent with previous research investigating the tobacco industry’s efforts to establish relationships with racial and ethnic minorities (Yerger and Malone 2002; Muggli et al. 2002; Portugal et al. 2004), gays and lesbians (Offen, Smith, and Malone 2003), and organized labor (Balbach, Herzberg, and Barbeau 2006). With these groups, as with women, tobacco companies used donations to leadership groups and charitable contributions to causes important to the targeted groups to establish strategic relationships intended to influence policy and improve corporate image.

Since the 1970s, PM has had a sustained interest in convincing women that it is a responsible corporation. Women’s organizations, the initial focus of PM’s image enhancement efforts, proved willing to accept both tobacco industry funding and the implied obligations it apparently entailed, including de-prioritizing smoking as a women’s health issue, and helping to maintain a policy climate favorable to the tobacco industry. That many of the women’s organizations receiving tobacco industry funding in the past continue today to largely ignore smoking as a women’s health issue suggests that the tobacco industry’s “investment” paid long-term dividends, with potentially devastating results for women’s health.

PM was less successful in burnishing its image among “active moms.” Despite its involvement with domestic violence, an issue important to many women, PM was unable to definitively improve “active moms’” view of the company. “Active moms” may have recognized that the company’s outrage over the widespread problem of domestic violence contrasted markedly with its silence regarding its role as the vector of tobacco-caused disease among women or its longstanding targeting of children. They may also have read or seen media reports criticizing PM for spending in 2000 more money advertising its commitment to preventing domestic violence than funding domestic violence programs (Weiss 2001; Big tobacco’s latest smoke screen 2000; Stossel 2001).

PM’s attempts to divert women’s attention from tobacco by supporting domestic violence organizations may have only been possible because of the broader perception that tobacco was not a women’s health issue (Haviland 2004). As our research showed, many women’s organizations devoted to health issues ignored tobacco. In addition, studies indicate that women’s magazines have devoted most of their attention to breast cancer, despite the fact that, in 1987, lung cancer, a cancer caused almost exclusively by tobacco smoking, surpassed breast cancer as the leading cancer-related cause of death among women (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2001; Tobler, Wilson, and Napolitano 2009; Hoffman-Goetz et al. 1997; Hoffman-Goetz and MacDonald 1999). Because the media are a key source of health information for women, perhaps this inattention explains why women underestimate the disease effects of tobacco use (Moran, Glazier, and Armstrong 2003; Oncken et al. 2005; Luker et al. 1996; Meischke et al. 2002).

To frame tobacco as a women’s health issue, the 2001 U.S. Surgeon General’s report on women and smoking called for emulating the breast cancer campaign, with celebrities, women’s magazines, women’s organizations, women affected by tobacco-caused disease, and women’s advocates all calling attention to the impact of smoking on women’s health (including secondhand smoke effects) and supporting policies to reduce tobacco use and exposure among women (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2001). Counter-industry advertising, similar to that employed by the state of Massachusetts in 2001 highlighting the hypocrisy of PM’s claims to care about women victims of domestic violence while ignoring women victims of tobacco, might also be a useful part of such a campaign (Rountree 2001). Because women have tended to be more supportive of tobacco control policies than men (Wilson, Duncan, and Nicholson 2004; Gilpin, Lee, and Pierce 2004; Doucet, Velicer, and Laforge 2007) and may be a “critical group for politicians” (Philip Morris 2000b), a women-centered campaign might serve as a means of gaining support for and enacting tobacco control policies previously regarded as politically unfeasible.

Raising tobacco’s visibility as a global women’s health issue should include addressing tobacco companies’ ties to influential women’s groups and developing alternative funding sources. Our study results suggest that an important tobacco industry strategy for increasing cigarette sales among women in developing nations (where only 9% are estimated to be current smokers) (Collin 2005; Shafey et al. 2009) will be to establish relationships with women’s organizations. These relationships may not only help weaken cultural taboos against women smoking (World Health Organization 2008, p. 17), but also create allies or “neutrals” who will oppose or fail to support tobacco control measures. The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, an international treaty developed in response to the globalization of the tobacco epidemic, offers a remedy to counter this strategy. Article 13 requires signatories to ban or restrict tobacco marketing (World Health Organization 2003), and the implementation guidelines explicitly list tobacco industry corporate social responsibility donations and activities as forms of tobacco marketing (Conference of the Parties to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control 2009). In the more than 164 countries which have now ratified this treaty, implementation should include restricting tobacco industry philanthropy and image management strategies aimed at women and women’s groups.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by grant CA120138 from the National Cancer Institute.

Contributor Information

Patricia A. McDaniel, Email: patricia.mcdaniel@ucsf.edu, Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 3333 California Street, Suite 455, San Francisco, CA 94118, 415-514-9342

Ruth E. Malone, Email: ruth.malone@ucsf.edu, Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 3333 California Street, Suite 455, San Francisco, CA 94118, 415-476-3273

References

  1. Abruzzo G. Interview Logistics. 03 Jan. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2002 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/mhf20c00.
  2. Abruzzo G, Baker D, Singh R, Sosin J KRC Research. Summary of Focus Groups on Domestic Violence. 16 Jun. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];2000 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/uin35c00.
  3. Ainsworth G. Government Relations Status Report. 14 Nov. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1986 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/kym97c00.
  4. Ainsworth G. Government Relations Status Report. 08 May. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1987a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/efy44d00.
  5. Ainsworth G. Government Relations Status Report. 11 Sep. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1987b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ggy44d00.
  6. Al-Iktissad Wal-Aamal Group. The 2nd New Arab Woman Forum. 2008 [cited February 19, 2009]. Available from http://www.iktissad.com/events/AWF/2/
  7. Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority. Service to all mankind. 2009 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.aka1908.com/present/chapterprograms/
  8. Altria. Corporate contributions. 2009 [cited February 12, 2009]. Available from http://www.altria.com/responsibility/4_5_1_corporatecontributions.asp.
  9. American College of Gastroenterology. Women Require Less Tobacco Exposure Than Men To Increase Colon Cancer Risk. Science Daily October 6. 2008 [cited April 21 2009]. Available from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081006102533.htm.
  10. American Women in Radio and Television. The mostly male legislators in Washington]. 14 Mar. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1990 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/rnt85e00.
  11. American Women in Radio and Television. Proposal to Philip Morris. Dec. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1994 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ljd83c00.
  12. Amos A, Haglund M. From social taboo to “torch of freedom”: the marketing of cigarettes to women. Tob Control. 2000;9(1):3–8. doi: 10.1136/tc.9.1.3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Anderson SJ, Glantz SA, Ling PM. Emotions for sale: cigarette advertising and women’s psychosocial needs. Tob Control. 2005;14(2):127–35. doi: 10.1136/tc.2004.009076. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Balbach ED, Herzberg A, Barbeau EM. Political coalitions and working women: how the tobacco industry built a relationship with the Coalition of Labor Union Women. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60(Suppl 2):27–32. doi: 10.1136/jech.2006.046276. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Barbeau EM, Leavy-Sperounis A, Balbach ED. Smoking, social class, and gender: what can public health learn from the tobacco industry about disparities in smoking? Tob Control. 2004;13(2):115–20. doi: 10.1136/tc.2003.006098. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bartlett DT. Financial Women’s Association Dinner. 06 Jan. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1997 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/owf36c00.
  17. Bass MB. We Have Reviewed BPW’s Annual Report. 25 Feb. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1985 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ksr15d00.
  18. Bass MB. Request for Support of Programs of the NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund. 24 Feb. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1987a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xwr15d00.
  19. Bass MB. We Have Received Your Recent Letter. 30 Mar. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1987b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vwr15d00.
  20. Bass MB. We Have Received Your Request for Continued Support of the Women’s Action Alliance. 31 Mar. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1987c Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/twr15d00.
  21. Bateman MA. Sample Product for Minority Conventions. 06 Mar. Brown & Williamson. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1985 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/sqi04f00.
  22. Bateman MA. Sample Product for Minority Conventions. 27 Mar. Brown & Williamson. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1984 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ggc11c00.
  23. Bateman MA. Sample Cigarettes. 23 Jan. Brown & Williamson. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1986 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dmc01c00.
  24. Bauer UE, Johnson TM, Hopkins RS, Brooks RG. Changes in youth cigarette use and intentions following implementation of a tobacco control program: findings from the Florida Youth Tobacco Survey, 1998–2000. JAMA. 2000;284(6):723–8. doi: 10.1001/jama.284.6.723. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Bell-Stevens R. New York Coalition of 100 Black Women. 1994. [Writing to request Philip Morris’s support]. 12 Oct. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 27 2009]; Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hkd83c00.
  26. Benner Patricia. Interpretive phenomenology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 1994. [Google Scholar]
  27. Berlind M. Fw: Legal Approval for Research. 04 Jan. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2002 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/phf20c00.
  28. Bero LA. Implications of the tobacco industry documents for public health and policy. Annu Rev Public Health. 2003;24:267–88. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.24.100901.140813. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Big tobacco’s latest smoke screen. San Francisco Chronicle. 2000 November 27;:A22. [Google Scholar]
  30. Bilodeau J. Legal Approval for Research. 04 Jan. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2002 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ohf20c00.
  31. Blake J, Dowling J, Florio D, Merritt W, Miller A, Rothermel T, Woodward G. Workshop Dealing with the Issues Indirectly: Constituencies. 13 Sep. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1984 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fxz88e00.
  32. Bond OL, T Daley T, Herman AM, Jackson AC, Jackson S, Lucas CP, Phifer M, Weaver VJ. Dr. Dorothy Height. 03 Dec. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1997 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/osv50d00.
  33. Bowling JC. Presentation to Philip Morris Board of Directors 19 Dec. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1979 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lxe48e00.
  34. Bowling JC. 1983 Corporate Affairs Status Reports. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1983 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/pep02a00.
  35. Boyd TC, Boyd CJ, Greenlee TB. A means to an end: slim hopes and cigarette advertising. Health Promot Pract. 2003;4(3):266–77. doi: 10.1177/1524839903004003011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Brandt Allan M. The cigarette century: the rise, fall, and deadly persistence of the product that defined America. New York: Basic Books; 2007. [Google Scholar]
  37. Brown, Williamson Corporate Contributions. 04 Nov. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1995 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/itc01c00.
  38. Business and Professional Women’s Foundation. Women’s health. 2009 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.bpwusa.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=5048.
  39. Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids, American Heart Association, American Lung Association, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and Cancer Action Network. Deadly in Pink: Big Tobacco Steps Up Its Targeting of Women and Girls [cited February 19, 2009] 2009 Available from http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/reports/women_new/index.html.
  40. Center for Women’s Policy Studies. Women’s Health. 2006 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.centerwomenpolicy.org/programs/health/default.asp.
  41. Chann TB, Walls TA. [Check enclosed]. 10 Aug. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1994 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/evi57d00.
  42. Chapman S, Freeman B. Markers of the denormalisation of smoking and the tobacco industry. Tob Control. 2008;17(1):25–31. doi: 10.1136/tc.2007.021386. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Cole R. [Lobbying the newly-elected Beverly Hills city council]. 16 Sep. Tobacco Institute. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1988 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/joa96d00.
  44. Collin J. Opening a global gold mine: globalization, gender, and transnational tobacco companies. In: Kickbusch I, Hartwig KA, List JM, editors. Globalization, women, and health in the twenty-first century. New York: Palgrave MacMillan; 2005. [Google Scholar]
  45. Conference of the Parties to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. Decisions 2009. 2009 [cited February 26, 2009]. Available from http://www.who.int/gb/fctc/PDF/cop3/FCTC_COP3_DIV3-en.pdf.
  46. Delta Sigma Theta Sorority. Programs. 2009 [cited March 2 2009]. Available from http://www.deltasigmatheta.org/index2.asp.
  47. Doucet JM, Velicer WF, Laforge RG. Demographic differences in support for smoking policy interventions. Addict Behav. 2007;32(1):148–57. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.04.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Dowdell M. The New York Coalition of One Hundred Black Women. 21 Nov. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];2000 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/qia29c00.
  49. Durlam A. National Conference of State Legislatures Women’s Network. 1997. Invoice. 16 Dec. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 8 2009]; Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fnf60d00.
  50. Echevarria D. MANA Conference Sponsorship. 30 Oct. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];2000 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ioh75c00.
  51. Ernster V, Kaufman N, Nichter M, Samet J, Yoon SY. Women and tobacco: moving from policy to action. Bull World Health Organ. 2000;78(7):891–901. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Ernster VL. Women, smoking, cigarette advertising and cancer. Women Health. 1986;11(3–4):217–35. doi: 10.1300/j013v11n03_15. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Essential Action. Report on 2002 Philip Morris Annual Meeting of Stockholders. 2002 [cited February 12, 2009]. Available from http://www.takingontobacco.org/event/pm2002.
  54. Farlow KJ. Company’s Response to “Philip Morris Must Change” Letter. 09 Nov. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];1999 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vou72c00.
  55. Farrelly MC, Davis KC, Haviland ML, Messeri P, Healton CG. Evidence of a dose-response relationship between “truth” antismoking ads and youth smoking prevalence. Am J Public Health. 2005;95(3):425–31. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.049692. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Financial Women’s Association. Committee--President’s Circle. 2008 [cited February 12, 2009]. Available from http://www.fwa.org/committee/pc.htm.
  57. Fishel DB. Request for Gratis Tobacco Products. 18 Feb. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1985 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/neh27a00.
  58. Fishel DB. Accounts Payable Voucher. 29 Jan. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1986 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/uas15d00.
  59. Fishel DB. Accounts Payable Voucher. 02 Feb. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1987 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/adh27a00.
  60. Forster Nick. The analysis of company documentation. In: Cassell C, Symon G, editors. Qualitative methods in organizational research. London: Sage; 1995. [Google Scholar]
  61. Fuller CL. July Monthly Report. 05 Aug. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 28 2009];1993 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hsj05e00.
  62. Gannon S. Organizations that received Richmond local budget contributions in 1998. 15 Jul. Philip Morris. [Accessed Mar 30 2009];1999 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vfe16c00.
  63. Gilpin EA, Lee L, Pierce JP. Changes in population attitudes about where smoking should not be allowed: California versus the rest of the USA. Tob Control. 2004;13(1):38–44. doi: 10.1136/tc.2003.004739. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Goldsmith CH, Millhiser RR, Weissman G. Philip Morris Incorporated Annual Report 1979. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1979 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/njq74e00.
  65. Gomez F. Five-Year Plan Public Programs. 03 Jan. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1991 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/rtg57c00.
  66. Greaves L. Sifting the evidence: gender and tobacco control. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007. [Google Scholar]
  67. Greaves L, Jategaonkar N, Sanchez S. Turning a New Leaf: Women, Tobacco, and the Future. Vancouver: British Columbia Centre of Excellence for Women’s Health and International Network of Women Against Tobacco; 2006. [Google Scholar]
  68. Griffen E Zeta Phi Beta Sorority. [Requesting souvenirs from your company]. Jan 12. Lorillard. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1987 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zch21e00.
  69. Hammond D, Fong GT, Zanna MP, Thrasher JF, Borland R. Tobacco denormalization and industry beliefs among smokers from four countries. Am J Prev Med. 2006;31(3):225–32. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2006.04.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Harrington S. Voucher--National Council of Negro Women. 01 Feb. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1990 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/rbh22d00.
  71. Haviland L. A silence that kills. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(2):176–8. doi: 10.2105/ajph.94.2.176. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Henk Erin. China’s Hu Yan Pursues Passion for Health Journalism on IWMF Fellowship. International Women’s Media Foundation. 2005 [cited March 30, 2009]. Available from http://www.iwmf.org/article.aspx?id=431&camp;=particles.
  73. Hill MR. Archival strategies and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications; 1993. [Google Scholar]
  74. Hirschhorn N. Corporate social responsibility and the tobacco industry: hope or hype? Tob Control. 2004;13(4):447–53. doi: 10.1136/tc.2003.006676. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Hoffman-Goetz L, Gerlach KK, Marino C, Mills SL. Cancer coverage and tobacco advertising in African-American women’s popular magazines. J Community Health. 1997;22(4):261–70. doi: 10.1023/a:1025100419474. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Hoffman-Goetz L, MacDonald M. Cancer coverage in mass-circulating Canadian women’s magazines. Can J Public Health. 1999;90(1):55–9. doi: 10.1007/BF03404101. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Hollis CM. CRT Planning Update. 15 Jan. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];2002 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fvg22c00.
  78. Hopkins WW. Weekly Report. Jul. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1986 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ecd45d00.
  79. Horrigan EA., Jr RJR Contributions Committee Annual Report 1982. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1982 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gnn59d00.
  80. International Center for Research on Women. Funding Partners. 2009a [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.icrw.org/html/about/funders.htm.
  81. International Center for Research on Women. Research areas. 2009b [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from https://www.icrw.org/html/projects/projects.htm.
  82. Ison D. On behalf of Philip Morris. 30 Jan. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1991 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dch22d00.
  83. Jackson PM. Corporate Affairs Weekly Report. 29 Sep. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1995 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lig25a00.
  84. Johnson CR Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority. [Request for support]. 08 Aug. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1990 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/pgt66e00.
  85. Jones-Rimple DK. [Check enclosed]. 23 Oct. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1989 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lfr89a00.
  86. Keenan C. Status Report. 19 Feb. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1999 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ywl72c00.
  87. Kessler D. A question of intent: a great American battle with a deadly industry. New York: Public Affairs; 2000. [Google Scholar]
  88. Kessler G. United States of America v. Philip Morris USA, Inc., et al., Civil Action No. 99–2496, Final Opinion 2006. 2006 [cited November 2, 2008]. Available from http://tobaccofreekids.org/reports/doj/FinalOpinion.pdf.
  89. Knox GL. [I am in receipt of your request]. 07 Oct. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1988 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lsp97a00.
  90. KRC Research and Consulting. Discussion Guides May. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];2000 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vin35c00.
  91. Lai J. 1995 Grants as of 10/31/95. 30 Nov. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1995 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xpy36c00.
  92. Landman A, Ling PM, Glantz SA. Tobacco industry youth smoking prevention programs: protecting the industry and hurting tobacco control. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(6):917–30. doi: 10.2105/ajph.92.6.917. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Latin Women in Action. Health. 2009 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.mujereslatinasenaccion.com/health.html.
  94. League of Women Voters. Health care reform. 2009 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.lwv.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Health_Care1.
  95. Lee K, Carpenter C, Challa C, Lee S, Connolly GN, Koh HK. The strategic targeting of females by transnational tobacco companies in South Korea following trade liberalisation. Global Health. 2009;5(1):2. doi: 10.1186/1744-8603-5-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Legal Momentum. Our issues. 2009 [cited Feburary 20 2009]. Available from http://www.legalmomentum.org/site/PageServer?pagename=issues_1.
  97. Lewis CE. As Per Our Conversation. 20 Aug. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1985a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/kdh27a00.
  98. Lewis CE. Tobacco Public Relations. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1985b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/aas15d00.
  99. Lewis CE. Thank You for Your Recent Letters. Jan 28. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1986 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/uyr15d00.
  100. Liberman J. The shredding of BAT’s defence: McCabe v British American Tobacco Australia. Tob Control. 2002;11:271–274. doi: 10.1136/tc.11.3.271. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Lorillard Log of All Sample 4’s Distributed to Lorillard Employees. 22 Feb. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1983 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/svg21e00.
  102. Luker KA, Beaver K, Leinster SJ, Owens RG. Information needs and sources of information for women with breast cancer: a follow-up study. J Adv Nurs. 1996;23(3):487–95. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.1996.tb00010.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. MacKenzie R, Collin J, Lee K. The tobacco industry documents: an introductory handbook and resource guide for researchers. Centre on Global Health and Change, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. 2003 [cited April 3, 2009]. Available from http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/cgch/tobacco/Handbook%2008.07.03.pdf.
  104. Malone RE, Balbach ED. Tobacco industry documents: treasure trove or quagmire? Tob Control. 2000;9(3):334–338. doi: 10.1136/tc.9.3.334. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Maxwell H. In the Public Interest. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1985 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/yse82e00.
  106. McDaniel J. National Foundation for Women Legislators. 04 Oct. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];2000 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/okn41c00.
  107. McDaniel PA, Malone RE. The role of corporate credibility in legitimizing disease promotion. Am J Public Health. 2009;99(3):452–61. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2008.138115. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. McKeown FE. [Letter of intent]. 16 Jan. Brown & Williamson. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1979 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lpz81d00.
  109. Meischke H, Kuniyuki A, Yasui Y, Bowen DJ, Andersen R, Urban N. Information women receive about heart attacks and how it affects their knowledge, beliefs, and intentions to act in a cardiac emergency. Health Care Women Int. 2002;23(2):149–62. doi: 10.1080/073993302753429022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Merlo E. Re: Company’s Response to “Philip Morris Must Change” Letter. 10 Nov. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];1999 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wqq84a00.
  111. Moore ER. Sample 6’s. Jan 9. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 3 2009];1990 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hhc29a00.
  112. Moran S, Glazier G, Armstrong K. Women smokers’ perceptions of smoking-related health risks. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2003;12(4):363–71. doi: 10.1089/154099903765448871. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Ms. Foundation for Women. Health and safety. 2009 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.ms.foundation.org/wmspage.cfm?parm1=16.
  114. Muggli ME, Pollay RW, Lew R, Joseph AM. Targeting of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders by the tobacco industry: results from the Minnesota Tobacco Document Depository. Tob Control. 2002;11(3):201–9. doi: 10.1136/tc.11.3.201. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. National Coalition of 100 Black Women. Health. 2008 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.ncbw.org/programs.htm.
  116. National Conference for State Legislatures. Women’s health across the lifespan. 2009 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/womenmain.htm.
  117. National Council of Jewish Women. Public policy issues. 2009 [cited March 30 2009]. Available from http://www.ncjw.org/public_policy.cfm?navID=217.
  118. National Council of Jewish Women New York. Advocacy. 2009 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.ncjwny.org/advocacy.htm.
  119. National Council of Negro Women. Health. 2009 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.ncnw.org/resources/health.htm#top.
  120. National Foundation for Women Legislators. Health and empowerment. 2007 [cited February 20 2009]. Available from http://www.womenlegislators.org/committees/?id=68.
  121. National Order of Women Legislators. Missouri’s Memorial Breakfast. 03 Oct. Tobacco Institute. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1993 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zcr91f00/
  122. National Organization for Women. Key issues. 2009 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.now.org/issues/
  123. National Organization for Women Foundation. Fact sheets. 2007 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.nowfoundation.org/issues/health/whp/index.html.
  124. National Women’s Law Center. Women and Smoking: A National and State-by-State Report Card. 2003 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.nwlc.org/details.cfm?id=1959&section=health.
  125. National Women’s Law Center. Comprehensive and affordable health care. 2009 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.nwlc.org/display.cfm?section=health.
  126. National Women’s Political Caucus. Program Advertising Order Form. 19 Jul. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1977 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wwn59a00.
  127. New York Women’s Agenda. Member Benefits. 2009a [cited February 12, 2009]. Available from http://www.nywa.org/member_benefits.pdf.
  128. New York Women’s Agenda. Position statement on women’s reproductive freedom. 2009b [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.nywa.org/positionstatements.html.
  129. O’Keefe AM, Pollay RW. Deadly targeting of women in promoting cigarettes. J Am Med Womens Assoc. 1996;51(1–2):67–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Offen N, Smith EA, Malone RE. From adversary to target market: the ACT-UP boycott of Philip Morris. Tob Control. 2003;12(2):203–7. doi: 10.1136/tc.12.2.203. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Ogburn TI. Public Issues Update. 23 Jul. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1993 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hja71d00.
  132. Ogilvy, Mathe Activities. 02 Oct. Tobacco Institute. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1987 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lfy32f00.
  133. Oncken C, McKee S, Krishnan-Sarin S, O’Malley S, Mazure CM. Knowledge and perceived risk of smoking-related conditions: a survey of cigarette smokers. Prev Med. 2005;40(6):779–84. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.09.024. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Packer MJ, Addison RB. Entering the circle: Hermeneutic investigation in psychology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press; 1989. [Google Scholar]
  135. Packer MJ. Hermeneutic inquiry in the study of human conduct. American Psychologist. 1985;40(10):1081–1083. [Google Scholar]
  136. Payne S. ‘Smoke like a man, die like a man’?: a review of the relationship between gender, sex and lung cancer. Soc Sci Med. 2001;53(8):1067–80. doi: 10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00402-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Morris Philip. Corporate Public Affairs Report of 1978. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1978 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jlv28e00.
  138. Morris Philip. 1979 Corporate Public Affairs Department. 01 Oct. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];1979a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wkr50b00.
  139. Morris Philip. Smoke Signals. 23 Mar. [Accessed Feb 3 2009];1979b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gzz18e00.
  140. Morris Philip. [Objectives] [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1981a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xid81f00.
  141. Morris Philip. Public Affairs 1981. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1981b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fjd81f00.
  142. Morris Philip. Remarks at International Women’s Forum luncheon. 13 October. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1988 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/nwx77e00.
  143. Morris Philip. Budget for Minority Business Development Sponsorships. 31 Oct. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1989a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ond45d00.
  144. Morris Philip. [Corporate contributions] [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1989b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fyo02a00.
  145. Morris Philip. [Organizations and purpose of support] [Accessed Feb 3 2009];1989c Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gyo02a00.
  146. Morris Philip. Public Programs Calendar 1991. 13 May. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1991 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/doq91a00.
  147. Morris Philip. Invoice -- National Council of Negro Women. 14 Feb. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1992 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/mbh22d00.
  148. Morris Philip. Philip Morris Public Programs Calendar 1993. 05 Jan. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1993 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gyt30b00.
  149. Morris Philip. Voucher. 06 Oct. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1994a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/eyc83c00.
  150. Morris Philip. Voucher. 15 Dec. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1994b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ctd83c00.
  151. Morris Philip. Budget for “the Women’s Strategy”. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];1995a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vaw65c00.
  152. Morris Philip. Corporate Affairs Financial Administration and Controls Project Report by Department. 15 Nov. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1995b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ops85c00.
  153. Morris Philip. Marketing Issues. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];1995c Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dde42e00.
  154. Morris Philip. Monthly Report, Public Programs. Jul. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1995d Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ntu66e00.
  155. Morris Philip. Public Affairs. Nov. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];1995e Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hxb50b00.
  156. Morris Philip. [Public Affairs Group] [Accessed Feb 10 2009];1995f Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/nwo89a00.
  157. Morris Philip. Public Programs 1996 Calendar. 23 Feb. [Accessed Jan 28 2009];1996 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/pgn79a00.
  158. Morris Philip. [Corporate contributions] [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1997a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/svh86c00.
  159. Morris Philip. [Corporate contributions] [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1997b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/uvh86c00.
  160. Morris Philip. [Corporate contributions] [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1997c Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vvh86c00.
  161. Morris Philip. [Corporate contributions] [Accessed Feb 3 2009];1997d Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wvh86c00.
  162. Morris Philip. Philip Morris USA 1997 Corporate Contributions. [Accessed Mar 30 2009];1997e Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/sop87a00.
  163. Morris Philip. Recent Praise for Philip Morris’ Efforts on Behalf of Women. 31 Oct. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1997f Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wbx28d00.
  164. Morris Philip. Public Programs. 18 Mar. [Accessed Jan 28 2009];1998 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/anf08d00.
  165. Morris Philip. New York State Lobbyist Periodic Report 05 Nov. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1999a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vqi42c00.
  166. Morris Philip. Organizations Coded African-American. [Accessed Feb 3 2009];1999b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fvh86c00.
  167. Morris Philip. [PM corporate image advertising groups] [Accessed Feb 10 2009];1999c Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/clr65c00.
  168. Morris Philip. Sharing the Commitment. Building the Solution. Oct. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1999d Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/omo49c00.
  169. Morris Philip. Corporate Affairs Programs. 17 Jan. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2000a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bhn49c00.
  170. Morris Philip. Corporate Communications Plan 2000. 07 Feb. [Accessed 17 Jun 2009];2000b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gby55c00.
  171. Morris Philip. External Affairs Department African American Organizations. Dec. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];2000c Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/cvh86c00.
  172. Morris Philip. Philip Morris USA 2000 Corporate Contributions. [Accessed 24 Mar 2009];2000d Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/kif95a00.
  173. Morris Philip. PM21 Diverse Audiences Communications Recommendations. 06 Jul. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2000e Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gvr65c00.
  174. Morris Philip. PM21 Domestic Violence Task Force Communications Recommendations. 25 Aug. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];2000f Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/nyx65c00.
  175. Morris Philip. PM21 DV Meeting II Core Messages Channel Discussion Summary of Meeting Notes. 27 Apr. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];2000g Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/qyx65c00.
  176. Morris Philip. Philip Morris USA 2001 Corporate Contributions. [Accessed Mar 24 2009];2001a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dpp06a00.
  177. Morris Philip. Philip Morris Women’s Initiative. Jan 8. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2001b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ain14c00.
  178. Morris Philip. Women’s Initiative Directional Plan. 10 Apr. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2001c Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/emm14c00.
  179. Morris Philip. Women’s Initiative directional plan. 10 Apr. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2001d Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ein14c00.
  180. Morris Philip. 2002 Corporate Contributions. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];2002a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/cpp06a00.
  181. Morris Philip. CR External Communications Plan Meeting Notes. 21 Jan. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];2002b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/apj27a00.
  182. Philip Morris International. Tackling domestic violence. 2008 [cited February 19, 2009]. Available from http://www.philipmorrisinternational.com/PMINTL/pages/eng/stories/f012_CHViolence.asp.
  183. Philip Morris USA. Corporate contributions. 2007 [cited June 19, 2009]. Available from http://web.archive.org/web/20060520204431/pmusa.com/en/our_initiatives/community_involvement/corporate_contributions.asp.
  184. Pierce JP, Gilpin EA, Emery SL, White MM, Rosbrook B, Berry CC, Farkas AJ. Has the California tobacco control program reduced smoking? JAMA. 1998;280(10):893–9. doi: 10.1001/jama.280.10.893. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  185. Portugal C, Cruz TB, Espinoza L, Romero M, Baezconde-Garbanati L. Countering tobacco industry sponsorship of Hispanic/Latino organizations through policy adoption: a case study. Health Promot Pract. 2004;5(3 Suppl):143S–156S. doi: 10.1177/1524839904264623. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  186. Ridgway S. Check for Women in Communications Luncheon. 17 Mar. Lorillard. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1982 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ffs00e00.
  187. Rixter D. Corporate affairs recap. 08 Jun. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1993 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wui43d00.
  188. Rixter DS, Suggs ML. Voucher request. 16 Jun. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1997 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/khi97c00.
  189. Reynolds RJ. Minority Affairs Publicity Program 1983. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1983 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xsr15d00.
  190. Reynolds RJ. Sterling Neighborhood Sampling Program (Black Market) 28 Jun. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1984 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/rrs05d00.
  191. Reynolds RJ. Annual Spring 1986 Ebony Fashion Fair. Jan 27. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1986 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wue27a00.
  192. Reynolds RJ. 30th Annual Ebony Fashion Fair. 14 Apr. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1988 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/iwe27a00.
  193. Reynolds RJ. 1990 Corporate Affairs Plan. 06 Jul. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1989 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/drv28c00.
  194. Reynolds RJ. 1990 Corporate Affairs Plan. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1990 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ljn13d00.
  195. Reynolds RJ. 1991 Community Action Contributions. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1991a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xte23d00.
  196. Reynolds RJ. 1991 Corporate Affairs Plan. Government Relations. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1991b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/soe27a00.
  197. Reynolds RJ. Recommendations for 1993 Community Action Corporate Contributions. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1993a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/iui43d00.
  198. Reynolds RJ. Recommendations for 1993 Community Action Corporate Contributions. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1993b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jui43d00.
  199. Reynolds RJ. Corporate Affairs Weekly Hispanic/CARM Activities Week of September 26, 1994 26 Sep. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1994 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/iob11d00.
  200. Reynolds RJ. 1997 Budget Program Report. Jan 13. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1997 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ktv50d00.
  201. Roper Starch Worldwide. PM21: Progress to Date a Summary of Survey Findings from 9/99 to 8/01. Oct. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];2001 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fav12c00.
  202. Rosen J. PM21 Advertising Media Plan Update. 24 Feb. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 10 2009];2000 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ydv90b00.
  203. Rosenberg NJ, Siegel M. Use of corporate sponsorship as a tobacco marketing tool: a review of tobacco industry sponsorship in the USA, 1995–99. Tob Control. 2001;10(3):239–46. doi: 10.1136/tc.10.3.239. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  204. Rosenberg NJ, Sigel M. Tobacco industry sponsorship in the United States. 2001 doi: 10.1136/tc.10.3.239. [cited January 27, 2009]. Available from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tzt86c00/pdf?search=%222078871332%22. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  205. Rountree K. Laffin makes posthumous appeal. Adweek. 2001 March 26; [Google Scholar]
  206. Ruffin B. Corporate Affairs 3rd Quarter Activities. 25 Jul. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Feb 3 2009];1991 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ewb27a00.
  207. Shafey O, Eriksen M, Ross H, Mackay J. The tobacco atlas. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society; 2009. [Google Scholar]
  208. Sharp CL. Monthly Itinerary and Status. 11 Aug. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1983 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fur75d00.
  209. Shore P. Weekly Report. Feb 3. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1995 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/eub13a00.
  210. Shore P. Accounts Payable Voucher #007312. 01 Nov. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1997 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/sml40d00.
  211. Shore PJ. Weekly Report. 07 Feb. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1996 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/aya25a00.
  212. Shore P, Smith J. Accounts Payable Voucher 18 Nov. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 27 2009];1997 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lbf60d00.
  213. Smith EA, Malone RE. Thinking the “unthinkable”: why Philip Morris considered quitting. Tob Control. 2003;12(2):208–13. doi: 10.1136/tc.12.2.208. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  214. Smith GL. August Report. 07 Sep. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1990 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wjl46e00.
  215. Smitherman RJ. [RJR’s continued participation]. 16 Nov. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1983 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/pkh27a00.
  216. Spainhour S. Request for Gratis Tobacco Products. 10 Mar. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];1987 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/edh27a00.
  217. John Stossel. Cigarette makers spends big money publicizing its good deeds. 2001 February 9; [cited March 31 2009]. Available from http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=124140&page=1.
  218. Strategy Group. Analysis of the New York State budget situation. 01 Jan. [Accessed February 26, 2009];1990 Available at: http://repository01.lib.tufts.edu:8080/fedora/get/tufts:UA084.TI24461716/bdef:TuftsPDF/getPDF.
  219. Strategy Group. October Report. 12 Nov. Tobacco Institute. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1991 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gzf07d00.
  220. Stuntz S. Coalitions Progress Report. 08 Dec. Tobacco Institute. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1986a Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bfl91f00.
  221. Stuntz S. Second Quarter Report - General Coalitions. 12 Aug. Tobacco Institute. [Accessed Feb 9 2009];1986b Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/smn40c00.
  222. Stuntz Susan. Coalitions Progress Report. Sep. Tobacco Institute. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1986c Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wlu09a00.
  223. Szczypka G, Wakefield MA, Emery S, Terry-McElrath YM, Flay BR, Chaloupka FJ. Working to make an image: an analysis of three Philip Morris corporate image media campaigns. Tob Control. 2007;16(5):344–50. doi: 10.1136/tc.2007.020412. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  224. Taylor C. Interpretation and the sciences of man. In: Taylor C, editor. Philosophy and the human sciences: Philosophical papers 2. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press; 1985a. [Google Scholar]
  225. Taylor C. Theories of meaning. In: Taylor C, editor. Human agency and language: Philosophical papers 1. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press; 1985b. [Google Scholar]
  226. Tesler LE, Malone RE. Corporate philanthropy, lobbying, and public health policy. Am J Public Health. 2008;98(12):2123–33. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2007.128231. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  227. The Advocacy Institute. Smoke and mirrors: How the tobacco industry buys and lies its way to power and profits. Washington, DC: 1998. [Google Scholar]
  228. The National Council for Research on Women. Programs. 2007 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.ncrw.org/research/research.htm.
  229. The New York Women’s Foundation. Health and sexual rights. 2009 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.nywf.org/grant.html#health_sex.
  230. Tobacco Institute. 1985 Budget - Contributions to National Organizations. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1985 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/nds76d00.
  231. Tobacco Institute. Payment to NCSL Women’s Network. Jun. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1989 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ecg09a00.
  232. Tobacco Institute. General Ledger Report. 30 Sep. [Accessed Feb 3 2009];1992 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jtm86d00.
  233. Tobacco Institute. Federal Relation Travel Vendors & Amounts. 30 Nov. [Accessed Feb 3 2009];1997 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xlg50c00.
  234. Tobacco Institute. 1998 Federal Relations Division Travel and Support to Other Organizations Budget. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1998 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/cmg50c00.
  235. Tobler KJ, Wilson PK, Napolitano PG. Frequency of breast cancer, lung cancer, and tobacco use articles in women’s magazines from 1987 to 2003. J Cancer Educ. 2009;24(1):36–9. doi: 10.1080/08858190802664354. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  236. Toll BA, Ling PM. The Virginia Slims identity crisis: an inside look at tobacco industry marketing to women. Tob Control. 2005;14(3):172–80. doi: 10.1136/tc.2004.008953. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  237. Tuckson RV. Race, sex, economics, and tobacco advertising. J Natl Med Assoc. 1989;81(11):1119–24. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  238. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Women and Smoking: A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General; 2001. [Google Scholar]
  239. U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare. Smoking and health: a report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: Public Health Service, Office on Smoking and Health; 1979. [Google Scholar]
  240. U.S. Hispanic Women’s Chamber of Commerce. Women’s health watch. 2009 [cited March 2 2009]. Available from http://ushwcc.org/Screenings.pdf.
  241. Van Manen M. Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press; 1990. [Google Scholar]
  242. Wakefield M, Terry-McElrath Y, Emery S, Saffer H, Chaloupka FJ, Szczypka G, Flay B, O’Malley PM, Johnston LD. Effect of televised, tobacco company-funded smoking prevention advertising on youth smoking-related beliefs, intentions, and behavior. Am J Public Health. 2006;96(12):2154–60. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.083352. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  243. Washington GB National Council of Negro Women. Mary McLeod Bethune Recognition Luncheon. 06 Dec. RJ Reynolds. [Accessed Jan 13 2009];1985 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tas15d00.
  244. Washington S. Remarks at 2001 Scholarship Awards Reception New York Coalition of One Hundred Black Women. 16 Nov. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 12 2009];2000 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xai86c00.
  245. Weiss T. Ad campaign filters image of Philip Morris. Harford Courant. 2001 May 29;:D1. [Google Scholar]
  246. Wells JK. State Activities Policy Committee. 18 Nov. Brown & Williamson. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1983 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/kun01c00.
  247. Wells JK. State Activities Division 1987 Proposed Budget 26. Sep. Brown & Williamson. [Accessed Jan 9 2009];1986 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ztf33f00.
  248. Williams Marjorie. The funding habit women’s groups can’t resist. Washington Post. 1991a November 14;:16. [Google Scholar]
  249. Williams Marjorie. Tobacco’s hold on women’s groups: anti-smokers charge leaders have sold out to industry money. Washington Post. 1991b November 14;:1. [Google Scholar]
  250. Williams Marjorie. This kills women. Do feminist groups even care? Washington Post. 2001 April 11;:27. [Google Scholar]
  251. Wilson R, Duncan DF, Nicholson T. Public attitudes toward smoking bans in a tobacco-producing county. South Med J. 2004;97(7):645–50. doi: 10.1097/00007611-200407000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  252. Wolfe SM Public Citizen Health Research Group. Health Letter. Jan. Philip Morris. [Accessed Jan 8 2009];1993 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vrf36e00.
  253. Women’s Research and Education Institute. Women’s health. 2009 [cited February 20, 2009]. Available from http://www.wrei.org/WomensHealth.htm.
  254. World Health Organization. Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. Geneva, Switzerland: 2003. [Google Scholar]
  255. World Health Organization. WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008: The MPOWER Package. Geneva: 2008. [Google Scholar]
  256. Yang JS, Malone RE. “Working to shape what society’s expectations of us should be”: Philip Morris’ societal alignment strategy. Tob Control. 2008;17(6):391–8. doi: 10.1136/tc.2008.026476. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  257. Yerger VB, Malone RE. African American leadership groups: smoking with the enemy. Tob Control. 2002;11(4):336–45. doi: 10.1136/tc.11.4.336. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  258. YWCA. Philip Morris Must Change. 10 Nov. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 12 2009];1999 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ibx21c00.
  259. YWCA. Beauty at Any Cost: The Consequences of America’s Beauty Obsession on Women and Girls 2008. 2009 [cited March 2 2009]. Available from http://www.ywca.org/atf/cf/%7B3B450FA5-108B-4D2E-B3D0-C31487243E6A%7D/Beauty%20at%20Any%20Cost.pdf.
  260. YWCA New York City. New Inductees into the YWCA NYC Academy of Women Achievers. 28 Nov. Philip Morris. [Accessed Feb 12 200];2001 Available at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hzj20c00/.
  261. YWCA New York City. Academy of Women Leaders. 2009 [cited February 12, 2009]. Available from http://www.ywcanyc.org/salute/awl_directory/a.htm.
  262. Zeta Phi Beta Sorority. National service programs. 2005 [cited March 2, 2009]. Available from http://www.zphib1920.org/signature_programs/storksnest.html.

RESOURCES