Abstract
Fire-setting is a serious and costly form of antisocial behavior. Our objective in this study was to examine the prevalence and correlates of intentional fire-setting behavior in the U. S. Data were derived from a nationally representative sample of U.S. residents 18 years and older. Structured psychiatric interviews (N = 43,093) were completed by trained lay interviewers between 2001-2002. Fire-setting and DSM-IV mood, anxiety, substance use and personality disorders were assessed with the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule (DSM-IV) version. The prevalence of lifetime fire-setting in the U.S. population was 1.0%. Respondents who were men, Caucasian, 18 to 35, born in the U.S., and living in the western region of the U.S. had significantly higher rates of fire-setting than their counterparts. Fire-setting was significantly associated a wide range of antisocial behaviors. Multivariate logistic regression analyses identified strong associations between lifetime alcohol and marijuana use disorders, conduct disorder, antisocial and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, and family history of antisocial behavior. Intentional illicit fire-setting behavior is associated with a broad array of antisocial behaviors and psychiatric comorbidities. Given the substantial personal and social costs related to arson, prevention and treatment interventions targeting fire-setters potentially could save lives and property.
1. Introduction
Fire-setting is a serious and costly form of antisocial behavior that results in hundreds of fatalities each year and property losses estimated in the hundreds of millions to more than $2 billon annually.[1-2] Fire-setting is often used interchangeably with the legal term “arson,” which is the intentional setting of fire with the intent to defraud or damage. However, fire-setting is a broader behavioral phenotype with important forensic, psychiatric, and criminological implications.[3-4] With the exception of “status offenses,” fire-setting is the only crime in the U.S. that is more commonly perpetrated by juveniles than adults, and the bulk of prior research has investigated the etiology of fire-setting in childhood and adolescence. Studies indicate that fire-setting is strongly correlated with family dysfunction, a history of abuse, school difficulties, antisocial traits including impulsivity and hostility, and co-occurring delinquent behaviors.[5-14] Along with enuresis and animal cruelty, fire-setting forms the “MacDonald Triad,” which is a conceptual model of violence risk that has been linked to multiple homicide, homicide, and sexual offending.[15-16] Fire-setting is a sign of pyromania, which is characterized by repeated fire-setting, tension or affective arousal before setting fires, fascination or attraction to fire, gratification when setting, witnessing, or participating in the aftermath of fire, and expressive motivations for fire-setting.[17]
Despite the apparent importance of fire-setting behavior to psychiatry and criminology, its epidemiology is largely unknown. For instance, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR describes the prevalence of pyromania as “apparently rare.”[17] Estimates of the prevalence of fire-setting vary widely. Kolko and Kazdin’s[18] study of 300 psychiatrically disturbed children found prevalence rates of 19.4% among outpatients and 34.7% among inpatients. A recent evaluation of four cohorts of arson offenders in England and Wales from 1951 (n = 74), 1963-1965 (n = 1352), 1980-1981 (n = 5584), and 2000-2001 (n = 3335) showed increasing annual arson prevalence from 4.5% in 1951 to 10.7% in 1980-1981.[19] Even in large studies of criminal careers including those with prospective birth cohort designs, fire-setting behavior and offenders who commit fire-setting are often ignored.[20]
1.1 Study purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence and correlates of intentional fire-setting in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults. The primary aims were to 1) examine the prevalence of lifetime fire-setting overall and in relation to sociodemographic characteristics, antisocial behaviors, and lifetime mood, anxiety, substance use, and personality disorders, and 2) to estimate the strength of the associations between these characteristics and fire-setting in controlled multivariate analyses.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Participants
Study findings are based on data from the 2001-2002 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). NESARC is a nationally representative sample of 43,093 non-institutionalized U.S. residents aged 18 years and older. 21 The survey gathered information on alcohol use and comorbid conditions from individuals living in households and group settings such as shelters, college dormitories, and group homes in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. NESARC utilized a multistage cluster sampling design, oversampling young adults, Hispanics, and African-Americans in the interest of obtaining reliable statistical estimation in these populations, and to ensure appropriate representation of racial/ethnic subgroups, with an overall response rate of 81%. Data were weighted at the individual and household levels to adjust for oversampling and non-response on demographic variables (i.e., age, race/ethnicity, sex, region, and place of residence). Data were also adjusted to be representative (based on region, age, race, and ethnicity) of the U.S. adult population as assessed during the 2000 Census. Study participants provided fully informed consent. The U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Office of Management and Budget approved the research protocol and informed consent procedures.
2.2 Diagnostic Assessment and Sociodemographic Measures
Data were collected through face-to-face interviews conducted by U.S. Census workers trained by the National Institute on Alcohol and Alcoholism and U.S. Census Bureau. Interviewers administered the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule — DSM-IV version (AUDADIS-IV), shown to have good-to-excellent reliability in assessing alcohol and drug use in the general population.22-23
Data on fire-setting were based on an item embedded in the antisocial personality disorder interview module. All NESARC participants were asked the following question: “In your entire life, did you ever start a fire on purpose to destroy someone else’s property or just to see it burn?” NESARC respondents who answered yes were defined as having a history of fire-setting. The test-retest reliability for the antisocial personality disorder diagnosis is adequate (r = 0.69). 21 The internal consistency reliability for the antisocial personality disorder symptoms set is .86. 24
In addition to antisocial personality disorder, other personality disorders assessed included avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive, paranoid, schizoid, and histrionic disorders. Consistent with prior research, 25-27 personality disorder diagnoses reflected long-standing impairments, characteristic patterns of behavior, and exclusion of cases where substance use intoxication or withdrawal, other medication use, or physical illnesses could have affected behavior. Numerous control variables were used to reduce confounding including lifetime alcohol (alcohol abuse/dependence) and drug (abuse/dependence on heroin, hallucinogens, cocaine/crack, marijuana, stimulants, painkillers, tranquilizers, and sedatives) use disorders, nicotine dependence, pathological gambling, and lifetime DSM-IV mood (major depression, dysthymia, and bipolar disorder) and anxiety (social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and specific phobia) disorders. Family history of antisocial behavior based on any parental or sibling history of antisocial behavior was also assessed. Response categories for region of residence in U.S., urbanicity, race/ethnicity, sex, age, marital status, educational background, unemployment status, and individual and family income are listed in Table 1.
Table 1.
Sociodemographic Characteristics of Adult NESARC Respondents With and Without a Lifetime History of Fire-setting Behavior
| Characteristic |
Firesetters (N = 407) % CI |
Non-firesetters (N = 41,552) % CI |
OR 95% CI |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | |||
| Men | 82.08 (77.45-85.93) | 47.43 (46.81-48.06) | 4.96 (3.72-6.60) |
| Women | 17.92 (14.07-22.55) | 52.57 (51.94-53.19) | 1.00 |
| Race | |||
| Hispanic | 7.28 (4.73-11.04) | 11.57 (9.32-14.29) | 0.49 (0.26-0.92) |
| Asian/Alaska/Indian | |||
| Native American | 3.66 (1.93-6.85) | 6.52 (5.57-7.63) | 0.53 (0.25-1.11) |
| African American | 8.60 (6.02-12.15) | 11.02 (9.80-12.37) | 0.64 (0.42-0.96) |
| White | 80.46 (74.92-85.01) | 70.88 (67.61-73.96) | 1.00 |
| Nativity | |||
| Born in the U.S. | 94.20 (88.70-97.11) | 85.33 (82.07-88.07) | 2.59 (1.01-6.64) |
| Born in a Foreign Country | 5.80 (2.89-11.30) | 14.67 (11.93-17.93) | 1.00 |
| Age (years) | |||
| 65+ | 4.18 (2.42-7.12) | 16.39 (15.73-17.08) | 0.16 (0.08-0.29) |
| 50-64 | 13.39 (10.16-17.46) | 21.15 (20.62-21.68) | 0.39 (0.28-0.54) |
| 35-49 | 31.26 (25.60-37.53) | 31.08 (30.44-31.72) | 0.64 (0.47-0.87) |
| 18-34 | 51.17 (45.01-57.30) | 31.39 (30.51-32.28) | 1.00 |
| Education | |||
| Less than High School | 12.90 (9.63-17.06) | 15.54 (14.60-16.53) | 1.10 (0.77-1.57) |
| High School Graduate | 27.37 (21.83-33.72) | 29.34 (28.24-30.47) | 0.95 (0.69-1.30) |
| Some College or Higher | 59.73 (53.84-65.35) | 55.11 (53.84-56.37) | 1.00 |
| Income | |||
| 0-19,999 | 24.14 (19.01-30.15) | 23.44 (22.49-24.42) | 1.34 (0.87-2.06) |
| 20,000-34,999 | 16.33 (12.35-21.28) | 20.15 (19.49-20.83) | 0.93 (0.62-1.41) |
| 35,000-69,999 | 35.42 (29.53-41.79) | 32.15 (31.50-32.82) | 1.16 (0.83-1.63) |
| 70,000+ | 24.10 (19.17-29.84) | 24.26 (22.89-25.68) | 1.00 |
| Marital Status | |||
| Never Married | 34.39 (28.53-40.77) | 20.53 (19.60-21.50) | 1.12 (0.80-1.57) |
| Widowed/separated/divorced | 11.11 (8.10-15.06) | 17.42 (16.96-17.90) | 1.03 (0.70-1.52) |
| Married/Cohabitating | 54.50 (48.23-60.62) | 62.04 (61.10-62.98) | 1.00 |
| Urbanicity | |||
| Central City | 33.38 (26.63-40.90) | 29.39 (25.28-33.87) | 1.23 (0.92-1.65) |
| Rural/ Suburban | 66.62 (59.10-73.37) | 70.61 (66.13-74.72) | 1.00 |
| Region | |||
| Northeast | 12.70 (7.61-20.45) | 19.79 (13.87-27.45) | 0.42 (0.28-0.61) |
| Midwest | 22.09 (15.88-29.85) | 23.19 (17.44-30.13) | 0.54 (0.38-0.76) |
| South | 33.35 (25.49-42.27) | 35.14 (28.96-41.86) | 0.60 (0.43-0.84) |
| West | 31.86 (23.01-42.24) | 21.88 (15.68-29.67) | 1.00 |
Note:
CI: confidence interval
OR: odds ratio OR values in bold are statistically significant.
2.3 Statistical Analyses
Weighted prevalence estimates and standard errors were computed using SUDAAN Version 9.0. 28 This system implements a Taylor series linearization to adjust standard errors of estimates for complex survey sampling design effects including clustered data. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted with simultaneous entry of sociodemographic covariates and psychiatric variables. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and 95% confidence intervals are presented to reflect association strength and significance. Adjusted odds ratios were considered significant only if associated confidence intervals did not include the value 1.0.
3. Results
3.1 Sociodemographic Characteristics
The overall prevalence of fire-setting in the U.S. population was 1.0%. Table 1 provides comparisons of persons with and without a lifetime history of fire-setting across NESARC sociodemographic characteristics. Unadjusted analyses revealed that persons reporting a lifetime history of fire setting were more likely to be men (OR = 4.96, 95% CI = 3.72 – 6.60), born in the U.S. (OR = 2.59, 95% CI = 1.01 – 6.64), and less likely to be African-American (OR = 0.64, 95% CI = 0.42 – 0.96), and Latino/Hispanic (OR = 0.49, 95% CI = 0.26 – 0.92). Compared to respondents between the ages of 18-34, persons 35 and older were less likely to report intentional fire setting. Compared to persons from other regions of the country (Northeast, Midwest, South), respondents from the West were more likely to report fire-setting. There were no significant differences with respect to education, income, marital status, and urbanicity.
3.2 Fire-setting and Associated Antisocial Behaviors
The prevalence of all antisocial behaviors was higher among persons with a lifetime history of fire-setting compared to persons without such a history. The most prevalent behaviors for persons with a history of fire-setting were staying out late without permission (62.62%, CI = 56.52%– 68.34%), cutting class and leaving without permission (61.42%, CI = 55.47%– 67.04%), and shoplifting (58.16%, CI = 51.79%– 64.26%). The least prevalent behavior was forcing someone to have sex (1.42%, CI = 0.59% –3.41%). The strongest associations between antisocial behaviors and fire-setting were found for destroying others’ property (OR = 29.54, 95% CI = 22.76 – 38.35), robbing/mugging someone or snatching a purse (OR = 19.36, 95% CI = 10.89 – 34.43), and forcing someone to have sex (OR = 18.36, 95% CI = 13.73 – 24.55).
3.3 Multivariate Logistic Regression Analysis Examining Associations between Fire-setting and Lifetime Comorbidity
Table 3 compares prevalence rates of lifetime psychiatric comorbidity for persons reporting and not reporting a history of fire-setting. Odd ratios are adjusted for socio-demographic factors (i.e., race, sex, education, marital status, age, income, region, and urbanicity) and previously described lifetime DSM-IV psychiatric disorders. The most prevalent psychiatric disorders among persons with a history of fire-setting were any lifetime alcohol use disorder (71.70%, CI = 65.41% – 77.24%), antisocial personality disorder (51.46%, CI = 45.64% – 57.24%), marijuana use disorder (43.17%, CI = 37.39% – 49.14%), and nicotine dependence (42.95%, CI = 36.89% – 49.23%). A family history of antisocial behavior was also highly prevalent among persons reporting a history of fire-setting (59.96%, CI = 54.14% – 65.50%). Following adjustments, significant associations were found for any lifetime alcohol use disorder (OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.08 – 2.22), marijuana use disorder (OR = 1.70, 95% CI = 1.21– 2.38), conduct disorder (OR = 13.85, 95% CI = 8.51 – 22.53), obsessive-compulsive (OR = 1.92, 95% CI = 1.35 – 2.74) and antisocial (OR = 12.38, 95%CI = 8.93 – 17.18) personality disorders, and family history of antisocial behavior (OR = 2.16, 95%CI = 1.66 – 2.80).
Table 3.
Psychiatric Comorbidities of Adults With and Without a Lifetime History of Fire-setting Behavior.
| Comorbid Psychiatric Disorder |
Fire-setters (N = 407) % (95% CIa) |
Non fire-setters (N = 41,552) % (95% CI) |
Adjusted Odds Ratios b OR (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mood disorders | |||
| Major depressive disorder | 32.96 (26.98-39.56) | 16.69 (16.00-17.40) | 0.96 (0.69-1.34) |
| Bipolar disorder | 26.92 (21.30-33.41) | 5.51 (5.18-5.87) | 1.41 (0.94-2.10) |
| Dysthymia | 14.02 (9.88-19.51) | 4.25 (3.98-4.55) | 1.56 (0.95-2.56) |
| Anxiety disorders | |||
| Panic disorder | 8.34 (5.56-12.34) | 4.05 (3.78-4.33) | 0.86 (0.49-1.48) |
| Social phobia | 10.70 (6.96-16.11) | 5.03 (4.64-5.45) | 0.72 (0.44-1.19) |
| Specific phobia | 18.61 (14.15-23.01) | 9.51 (8.92-10.14) | 1.10 (0.76-1.58) |
| Generalized anxiety disorder | 7.41 (4.90-11.05) | 4.20 (3.87-4.55) | 0.64 (0.36-1.13) |
| Substance use disorders | |||
| Alcohol use disorder | 71.70 (65.41-77.24) | 29.91 (28.41-31.46) | 1.55 (1.08-2.22) |
| Nicotine dependence | 42.95 (36.89-49.23) | 17.62 (16.66-18.62) | 0.93 (0.68-1.26) |
| Marijuana use disorder | 43.17 (37.39-49.14) | 8.11 (7.58-8.67) | 1.70 (1.21-2.38) |
| Other illicit drug use disorder | 31.31 (26.16-36.96) | 5.00 (4.62-5.41) | 1.35 (0.94-1.94) |
| Psychotic disorder | 2.92 (1.73-4.88) | 0.77 (0.67-0.90) | 0.88 (0.41-1.87) |
| Conduct disorder | 9.01 (6.09-13.13) | 0.99 (0.86-1.13) | 13.85 (8.51-22.53) |
| Personality disorders | |||
| Avoidant | 6.75 (4.22-10.61) | 2.36 (2.15-2.59) | 0.90 (0.40-2.01) |
| Dependent | 1.85 (0.83-4.07) | 0.49 (0.40-0.60) | 0.48 (0.14-1.56) |
| Obsessive-compulsive | 30.36 (24.87-36.47) | 7.82 (7.39-8.28) | 1.92 (1.35-2.74) |
| Paranoid | 17.24 (13.07-22.39) | 4.37 (4.07-4.69) | 1.20 (0.75-1.90) |
| Schizoid | 11.05 (8.19-14.75) | 3.11 (2.87-3.37) | 1.03 (0.61-1.74) |
| Antisocial | 51.46 (45.64-57.24) | 3.18 (2.92-3.45) | 12.38 (8.93-17.18) |
| Histrionic | 12.07 (8.72-16.46) | 1.76 (1.60-1.95) | 1.43 (0.87-2.36) |
| Pathological gambling | 2.75 (1.52-4.91) | 0.41 (0.34-0.49) | 1.53 (0.63-3.73) |
| Family history of antisocial behavior |
59.96 (54.14-65.50) | 22.62 (21.58-23.69) | 2.16 (1.66-2.80) |
Note:
CI: confidence interval
OR: odds ratio adjusted for sociodemographic variables, lifetime psychiatric disorders, and a family history of antisocial behavior. OR values in bold are statistically significant.
4. Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the largest national epidemiological study examining the association between fire-setting and psychiatric diagnoses. Findings indicated that the prevalence of fire-setting varied by sociodemographic status, was associated with all antisocial behaviors, and following adjustments for numerous confounding variables was associated with several lifetime psychiatric diagnoses. Specifically, the current investigation found that the prevalence of fire-setting was higher among males and lower among African Americans and Hispanics, persons age 35 and older, and persons living in the Northeast, Midwest, and South. Two additional empirical trends are particularly important. First, compared to persons who have not set fires, fire-setters engage in multiple forms of antisocial behavior spanning a range of social dimensions including school behavior, driving and traffic-related behavior, interpersonal relationships, and crime. As shown in Table 2, the odds ratios for serious forms of antisociality, such as cruelty to animals, robbery, forcible rape, assault, aggravated assault, and weapons use are high. These findings support general theoretical viewpoints which suggest that antisociality is an omnibus disposition that is significantly related to problem behaviors across time and various settings. 29-30 Second, fire-setting was unrelated to income, educational attainment, marital status, urbanicity, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and psychotic disorder. There was significant comorbidity between fire-setting and alcohol use disorder, marijuana use disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, and family history of antisocial behavior. These effects were relatively modest and ranged from odds ratios of 1.55 to 2.16. There was also comorbidity between fire setting and conduct disorder (OR = 13.85, CI = 8.51-22.53) and fire setting and antisocial personality disorder (OR = 12.38, CI = 8.93-17.18) and these effects were very strong. This suggests that persons who commit fire setting are severely antisocial with important psychiatric impairments as suggested by prior research.10
Table 2.
Lifetime Prevalence of Antisocial Behaviors in Adults With and Without a Lifetime History of Fire-setting Behavior
| Behavior |
Fire-setters (N = 407) % (95%CIa) |
Non Fire-setters (N = 41,552) % (95%CIa) |
ORb 95% CI |
|---|---|---|---|
| Violent | |||
| Force someone to have sex | 1.42 (0.59-3.40) | 0.12 (0.09-0.17) | 18.36 (13.73-24.55) |
| Get into lots of fights that you started |
21.04 (16.51-26.51) | 2.61 (2.38-2.85) | 11.57 (4.38-30.53) |
| Get into a fight that came to swapping blows with Husband/Wife or Boyfriend/Girlfriend |
18.91 (15.08-23.44) | 6.50 (6.07-6.96) | 9.96 (7.17-13.84) |
| Use a weapon in a fight | 21.32 (16.80-26.66) | 2.47 (2.26-2.70) | 3.35 (2.49-4.51) |
| Hit someone so hard that you injure them |
34.91 (29.22-41.06) | 5.69 (5.29-6.11) | 10.69 (7.81-14.64) |
| Harass/threaten/blackmail someone | |||
| 21.50 (16.48-27.55) | 1.50 (1.33-1.69) | 8.89 (6.71-11.79) | |
| Bully/push people | 34.11 (28.50-40.19) | 5.93 (5.55-6.34) | 8.20 (6.25-10.77) |
| Hurt an animal on purpose | 17.61 (12.99-23.44) | 1.64 (1.48-1.83) | 12.79 (8.85-18.49) |
| Rob/mug someone or snatch a purse | |||
| 4.57 (2.82-7.33) | 0.25 (0.19-0.32) | 19.36 (10.89-34.43) | |
| Do things that could have easily hurt you/others |
53.08 (46.79-59.27) | 13.69 (12.74-14.70) | 7.13 (5.51-9.22) |
| Non-violent | |||
| Cut class and leave without permission |
61.42 (55.47-67.04) | 21.49 (20.77-22.24) | 5.81 (4.50-7.51) |
| Stay out late at night | 62.62 (56.52-68.34) | 25.38 (24.49-26.29) | 4.93 (3.76-6.46) |
| Run away from home overnight | 26.44 (21.40-32.19) | 4.90 (4.59-5.24) | 6.97 (5.25-9.25) |
| Be absent from work/ school a lot | 32.84 (26.84-39.45) | 6.60 (6.23-7.00) | 6.91 (5.17-9.25) |
| Quit a job without knowing where to find another |
42.11 (36.45-47.98) | 11.27 (10.68-11.89) | 5.72 (4.46-7.35) |
| Quit a school program without knowing what to do next |
18.99 (15.25-23.39) | 3.65 (3.35-3.97) | 6.19 (4.71-8.14) |
| Travel around more than 1 month without plans |
17.89 (13.85-22.81) | 3.28 (3.03-3.54) | 6.44 (4.74-8.74) |
| Have no regular place to live at least 1 month |
20.00 (15.61-25.24) | 2.56 (2.31-2.85) | 9.50 (7.00-12.88) |
| Live with others at least 1 month | 37.87 (32.00-44.13) | 10.87 (10.19-11.60) | 5.00 (3.88-6.44) |
| Lie a lot | 33.32 (27.55-39.65) | 4.98 (4.67-5.30) | 9.55 (7.17-12.71) |
| Use a false or made up name/ alias | |||
| 19.63 (15.06-25.17) | 1.95 (1.78-2.13) | 12.29 (8.85-17.07) | |
| Scam/con someone for money | 18.90 (14.52-24.22) | 1.32 (1.16-1.49) | 17.46 (12.63-24.14) |
| Get three or more traffic tickets for reckless driving/causing accidents |
23.39 (18.90-28.58) | 8.52 (7.89-9.20) | 3.28 (2.45-4.39) |
| Have a driver’s license suspended/revoked |
26.42 (21.75-31.70) | 7.57 (7.06-8.11) | 4.39 (3.36-5.72) |
| Destroy others’ property | 49.58 (43.51-55.66) | 3.22 (2.94-3.53) | 29.54 (22.76-38.35) |
| Fail to pay off your debts | 24.13 (18.76-30.46) | 3.95 (3.63-4.29) | 7.74 (5.56-10.78) |
| Steal anything from others | 56.79 (50.15-63.20) | 8.46 (7.90-9.05) | 14.23 (10.74-18.85) |
| Forge someone’s signature | 14.22 (10.52-18.94) | 2.01 (1.83-2.21) | 8.07 (5.66-11.51) |
| Shoplift | 58.16 (51.79-64.26) | 10.80 (10.11-11.52) | 11.48 (8.82-14.96) |
| Make money illegally | 27.90 (22.49-34.05) | 2.48 (2.25-2.74) | 15.19 (11.12-20.76) |
Note:
CI: confidence interval. bOR: odds ratio. OR values in bold are statistically significant.
OR: odds ratio. OR values in bold are statistically significant.
4.1 Limitations
As with other studies, current study findings require interpretation within the context of several limitations. One limitation is the data are cross-sectional. As such, the findings cannot clarify the etiological relationship of fire-setting to identified correlates. For example, alcohol abuse/dependence may disinhibit neuroregulatory processes, making the expression of fire-setting behavior more likely or both alcohol abuse and fire-setting behavior may be caused, in part, by a third factor, such as dysregulated serotonergic neurotransmission. However, findings do suggest that the origins of fire-setting and psychopathology are intertwined. The prognostic relationship between fire-setting and psychiatric disorders will require longitudinal study designs beginning earlier in the life course. The age of onset of fire-setting behavior is potentially important and unfortunately the NESARC does not provide data pertaining to the age at which fire-setting began. NESARC excludes persons under the age of 18 and therefore relies on retrospective respondent recall of fire-setting over potentially long periods of time. This could lead to underreporting or to biased reporting with younger respondents recalling better than older respondents. This disparity could also reflect secular trends. Although the NESARC is a nationally representative sample, it is uncertain how the association between fire-setting and psychiatric comorbidity would be similar or different if enriched correctional or clinical samples were employed. In addition, the data on fire-setting did not include important contextual, situational, and precipitating information which is important to understanding fire-setting.1 Further, the single item on fire-setting does not permit us to distinguish between episodic versus chronic fire-setting. Also, the stigmatized nature of fire-setting could well lead to underreporting of the behavior. Thus, the problem is likely to be larger than the findings reveal—this is especially the case given that the behavior is illegal. Further, theoretically, it would seem possible to start a fire just to see it burn and to do so in a way that was not illegal or dangerous. For example, camp fires are acts that are quite ordinary, particularly in the Western U.S. So, it is possible that the item capture’s a lot of false positives for fire-setting. Future studies on fire setting would benefit from including these natural history features in such assessments. Despite these limitations, findings from this study provide new and important epidemiologic insights into the problem of fire-setting in the U.S.
Acknowledgements
NESARC was funded by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism with additional support provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. The authors are grateful for support from NIH grants: DA021405 (Dr. Howard) and K07CA104119 (Dr. Fu).
Footnotes
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