Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) trans-activator protein Tat activates the expression of its viral long terminal repeat (LTR) through a target transactivation-responsive element termed TAR. We have constructed cell lines that constitutively express the HIV-1 Tat protein. Analyses of nuclear proteins from these cells and from matched control cells that do not express Tat have identified three proteins that bind to a radiolabeled HIV-1 TAR RNA probe. These polypeptides are 100 kDa, 62 kDa, and 46 kDa in size. Competition experiments using a wild-type TAR RNA sequence, a biologically inactive mutant sequence of TAR, and an unrelated RNA species demonstrated that these proteins show higher binding affinity to wild-type TAR than to the other two non-trans-activatable sequences. We hypothesize that these cellular proteins may mediate a function necessary in Tat-dependent activation of the LTR. The fact that no differences were seen in the binding profiles of nuclear proteins to TAR RNA in Tat-producing and Tat-nonproducing cells suggests that Tat does not directly interact with TAR.
Full text
PDF![7828](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/c619/298164/7d18565a763d/pnas00287-0176.png)
![7829](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/c619/298164/100cc8a4cea8/pnas00287-0177.png)
![7830](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/c619/298164/9b7198c436e2/pnas00287-0178.png)
![7831](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/c619/298164/3b302aaaddb3/pnas00287-0179.png)
![7832](https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/c619/298164/85781693d3ff/pnas00287-0180.png)
Images in this article
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Boshart M., Weber F., Jahn G., Dorsch-Häsler K., Fleckenstein B., Schaffner W. A very strong enhancer is located upstream of an immediate early gene of human cytomegalovirus. Cell. 1985 Jun;41(2):521–530. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(85)80025-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bourbon H. M., Lapeyre B., Amalric F. Structure of the mouse nucleolin gene. The complete sequence reveals that each RNA binding domain is encoded by two independent exons. J Mol Biol. 1988 Apr 20;200(4):627–638. doi: 10.1016/0022-2836(88)90476-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Briggs M. R., Kadonaga J. T., Bell S. P., Tjian R. Purification and biochemical characterization of the promoter-specific transcription factor, Sp1. Science. 1986 Oct 3;234(4772):47–52. doi: 10.1126/science.3529394. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cullen B. R. Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus occurs via a bimodal mechanism. Cell. 1986 Sep 26;46(7):973–982. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90696-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dignam J. D., Lebovitz R. M., Roeder R. G. Accurate transcription initiation by RNA polymerase II in a soluble extract from isolated mammalian nuclei. Nucleic Acids Res. 1983 Mar 11;11(5):1475–1489. doi: 10.1093/nar/11.5.1475. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dinter H., Chiu R., Imagawa M., Karin M., Jones K. A. In vitro activation of the HIV-1 enhancer in extracts from cells treated with a phorbol ester tumor promoter. EMBO J. 1987 Dec 20;6(13):4067–4071. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02752.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dynan W. S., Tjian R. The promoter-specific transcription factor Sp1 binds to upstream sequences in the SV40 early promoter. Cell. 1983 Nov;35(1):79–87. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(83)90210-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Edery I., Petryshyn R., Sonenberg N. Activation of double-stranded RNA-dependent kinase (dsl) by the TAR region of HIV-1 mRNA: a novel translational control mechanism. Cell. 1989 Jan 27;56(2):303–312. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90904-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fauci A. S. The human immunodeficiency virus: infectivity and mechanisms of pathogenesis. Science. 1988 Feb 5;239(4840):617–622. doi: 10.1126/science.3277274. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Feinberg M. B., Jarrett R. F., Aldovini A., Gallo R. C., Wong-Staal F. HTLV-III expression and production involve complex regulation at the levels of splicing and translation of viral RNA. Cell. 1986 Sep 12;46(6):807–817. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90062-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Feng S., Holland E. C. HIV-1 tat trans-activation requires the loop sequence within tar. Nature. 1988 Jul 14;334(6178):165–167. doi: 10.1038/334165a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Frankel A. D., Bredt D. S., Pabo C. O. Tat protein from human immunodeficiency virus forms a metal-linked dimer. Science. 1988 Apr 1;240(4848):70–73. doi: 10.1126/science.2832944. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Garcia J. A., Wu F. K., Mitsuyasu R., Gaynor R. B. Interactions of cellular proteins involved in the transcriptional regulation of the human immunodeficiency virus. EMBO J. 1987 Dec 1;6(12):3761–3770. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02711.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gendelman H. E., Phelps W., Feigenbaum L., Ostrove J. M., Adachi A., Howley P. M., Khoury G., Ginsberg H. S., Martin M. A. Trans-activation of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat sequence by DNA viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Dec;83(24):9759–9763. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.24.9759. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hauber J., Cullen B. R. Mutational analysis of the trans-activation-responsive region of the human immunodeficiency virus type I long terminal repeat. J Virol. 1988 Mar;62(3):673–679. doi: 10.1128/jvi.62.3.673-679.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hauber J., Perkins A., Heimer E. P., Cullen B. R. Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus gene expression is mediated by nuclear events. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Sep;84(18):6364–6368. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.18.6364. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Herr W., Gluzman Y. Duplications of a mutated simian virus 40 enhancer restore its activity. Nature. 1985 Feb 21;313(6004):711–714. doi: 10.1038/313711a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jakobovits A., Smith D. H., Jakobovits E. B., Capon D. J. A discrete element 3' of human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2 mRNA initiation sites mediates transcriptional activation by an HIV trans activator. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Jun;8(6):2555–2561. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.6.2555. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeang K. T., Boros I., Brady J., Radonovich M., Khoury G. Characterization of cellular factors that interact with the human T-cell leukemia virus type I p40x-responsive 21-base-pair sequence. J Virol. 1988 Dec;62(12):4499–4509. doi: 10.1128/jvi.62.12.4499-4509.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeang K. T., Rawlins D. R., Rosenfeld P. J., Shero J. H., Kelly T. J., Hayward G. S. Multiple tandemly repeated binding sites for cellular nuclear factor 1 that surround the major immediate-early promoters of simian and human cytomegalovirus. J Virol. 1987 May;61(5):1559–1570. doi: 10.1128/jvi.61.5.1559-1570.1987. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeang K. T., Shank P. R., Kumar A. Transcriptional activation of homologous viral long terminal repeats by the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 or the human T-cell leukemia virus type I tat proteins occurs in the absence of de novo protein synthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Nov;85(21):8291–8295. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.21.8291. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeang K. T., Shank P. R., Rabson A. B., Kumar A. Synthesis of functional human immunodeficiency virus tat protein in baculovirus as determined by a cell-cell fusion assay. J Virol. 1988 Oct;62(10):3874–3878. doi: 10.1128/jvi.62.10.3874-3878.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones K. A., Kadonaga J. T., Luciw P. A., Tjian R. Activation of the AIDS retrovirus promoter by the cellular transcription factor, Sp1. Science. 1986 May 9;232(4751):755–759. doi: 10.1126/science.3008338. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones K. A., Luciw P. A., Duchange N. Structural arrangements of transcription control domains within the 5'-untranslated leader regions of the HIV-1 and HIV-2 promoters. Genes Dev. 1988 Sep;2(9):1101–1114. doi: 10.1101/gad.2.9.1101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kao S. Y., Calman A. F., Luciw P. A., Peterlin B. M. Anti-termination of transcription within the long terminal repeat of HIV-1 by tat gene product. Nature. 1987 Dec 3;330(6147):489–493. doi: 10.1038/330489a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kashanchi F., Wood C. Human immunodeficiency viral long terminal repeat is functional and can be trans-activated in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Apr;86(7):2157–2161. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.7.2157. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kaufman J. D., Valandra G., Roderiquez G., Bushar G., Giri C., Norcross M. A. Phorbol ester enhances human immunodeficiency virus-promoted gene expression and acts on a repeated 10-base-pair functional enhancer element. Mol Cell Biol. 1987 Oct;7(10):3759–3766. doi: 10.1128/mcb.7.10.3759. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kingston R. E., Baldwin A. S., Sharp P. A. Transcription control by oncogenes. Cell. 1985 May;41(1):3–5. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(85)90049-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kozak M. Influences of mRNA secondary structure on initiation by eukaryotic ribosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 May;83(9):2850–2854. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.9.2850. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Leibold E. A., Munro H. N. Cytoplasmic protein binds in vitro to a highly conserved sequence in the 5' untranslated region of ferritin heavy- and light-subunit mRNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Apr;85(7):2171–2175. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.7.2171. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Malim M. H., Fenrick R., Ballard D. W., Hauber J., Böhnlein E., Cullen B. R. Functional characterization of a complex protein-DNA-binding domain located within the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat leader region. J Virol. 1989 Aug;63(8):3213–3219. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.8.3213-3219.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Melton D. A., Krieg P. A., Rebagliati M. R., Maniatis T., Zinn K., Green M. R. Efficient in vitro synthesis of biologically active RNA and RNA hybridization probes from plasmids containing a bacteriophage SP6 promoter. Nucleic Acids Res. 1984 Sep 25;12(18):7035–7056. doi: 10.1093/nar/12.18.7035. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Muesing M. A., Smith D. H., Capon D. J. Regulation of mRNA accumulation by a human immunodeficiency virus trans-activator protein. Cell. 1987 Feb 27;48(4):691–701. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90247-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nabel G., Baltimore D. An inducible transcription factor activates expression of human immunodeficiency virus in T cells. Nature. 1987 Apr 16;326(6114):711–713. doi: 10.1038/326711a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Peterlin B. M., Luciw P. A., Barr P. J., Walker M. D. Elevated levels of mRNA can account for the trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Dec;83(24):9734–9738. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.24.9734. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pozzatti R., Muschel R., Williams J., Padmanabhan R., Howard B., Liotta L., Khoury G. Primary rat embryo cells transformed by one or two oncogenes show different metastatic potentials. Science. 1986 Apr 11;232(4747):223–227. doi: 10.1126/science.3456644. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rabson A. B., Martin M. A. Molecular organization of the AIDS retrovirus. Cell. 1985 Mar;40(3):477–480. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(85)90189-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rosen C. A., Sodroski J. G., Goh W. C., Dayton A. I., Lippke J., Haseltine W. A. Post-transcriptional regulation accounts for the trans-activation of the human T-lymphotropic virus type III. Nature. 1986 Feb 13;319(6054):555–559. doi: 10.1038/319555a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rosen C. A., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A. The location of cis-acting regulatory sequences in the human T cell lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III/LAV) long terminal repeat. Cell. 1985 Jul;41(3):813–823. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(85)80062-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sassone-Corsi P., Wildeman A., Chambon P. A trans-acting factor is responsible for the simian virus 40 enhancer activity in vitro. Nature. 1985 Feb 7;313(6002):458–463. doi: 10.1038/313458a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- SenGupta D. N., Silverman R. H. Activation of interferon-regulated, dsRNA-dependent enzymes by human immunodeficiency virus-1 leader RNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 1989 Feb 11;17(3):969–978. doi: 10.1093/nar/17.3.969. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sen R., Baltimore D. Multiple nuclear factors interact with the immunoglobulin enhancer sequences. Cell. 1986 Aug 29;46(5):705–716. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90346-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Siekevitz M., Josephs S. F., Dukovich M., Peffer N., Wong-Staal F., Greene W. C. Activation of the HIV-1 LTR by T cell mitogens and the trans-activator protein of HTLV-I. Science. 1987 Dec 11;238(4833):1575–1578. doi: 10.1126/science.2825351. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tong-Starksen S. E., Luciw P. A., Peterlin B. M. Human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat responds to T-cell activation signals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Oct;84(19):6845–6849. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.19.6845. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wilusz J., Shenk T. A 64 kd nuclear protein binds to RNA segments that include the AAUAAA polyadenylation motif. Cell. 1988 Jan 29;52(2):221–228. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90510-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wright C. M., Felber B. K., Paskalis H., Pavlakis G. N. Expression and characterization of the trans-activator of HTLV-III/LAV virus. Science. 1986 Nov 21;234(4779):988–992. doi: 10.1126/science.3490693. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wu C., Wilson S., Walker B., Dawid I., Paisley T., Zimarino V., Ueda H. Purification and properties of Drosophila heat shock activator protein. Science. 1987 Nov 27;238(4831):1247–1253. doi: 10.1126/science.3685975. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wu F. K., Garcia J. A., Harrich D., Gaynor R. B. Purification of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 enhancer and TAR binding proteins EBP-1 and UBP-1. EMBO J. 1988 Jul;7(7):2117–2130. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb03051.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]