Abstract
Infections of the reproductive tract, complications after childbirth, and reproductive problems continue to be a major health challenge worldwide. An impressive number of plant species is traditionally used to remedy such afflictions, and some have been investigated for their efficacy with positive results. A total of 105 plant species belonging to 91 genera and 62 families were documented and identified as herbal remedies for reproductive problems in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (9.52%), followed by Lamiaceae and Fabaceae (8.57% and 6.67%). The most important families are clearly represented very similarly to their overall importance in the local pharmacopoeia. The majority of herbal preparations for reproductive afflictions were prepared from the leaves of plants (22.72%), the whole plant (21.97%), and stems (21.21%), while other plant parts were used less frequently. More than 60% of the cases fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies. Over 70% of the remedies were applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. Many remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients.
Little scientific evidence exists to prove the efficacy of the species employed as reproductive disorder remedies in Northern Peru. Only 34% of the plants found or their congeners have been studied at all for their medicinal properties. The information gained on frequently used traditional remedies might give some leads for future targets for further analysis in order to develop new drugs.
Background
According to 1999 WHO estimates reproductive problems, including, 340 million new cases of curable Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STIs; syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia and trichomoniasis) occur annually throughout the world in adults aged 15-49 years. In developing countries, STIs and their complications rank in the top five disease categories for which adults seek health care. Infection with STIs can lead to acute symptoms, chronic infection and serious delayed consequences such as infertility, ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer and the untimely death of infants and adults [1].
Traditional Medicine (TM) is used globally and is rapidly growing in economic importance. In developing countries, TM is often the only accessible and affordable treatment available. The WHO reports that TM is the primary health care system for 80% of the population in developing countries. In Latin America, the WHO Regional Office for the Americas (AMRO/PAHO) reports that 71% of the population in Chile and 40% of the population in Colombia have used TM. The WHO indicates that in many Asian countries TM is widely used, even though Western medicine is often readily available, and in Japan, 60-70% of allopathic doctors prescribe TMs for their patients [2].
Complementary Alternative Medicine (CAM) is gaining popularity in many developed countries. Forty-two percent of the population in the US have used CAM at least once [3], and the use of at least one of 16 alternative therapies increased from 34% in 1990 to 42% in 1997 [4]. The number of visits to providers of CAM now exceeds by far the number of visits to all primary care physicians in the US [5,6]. The expenses for the use of TM and CAM are exponentially growing in many parts of the world. The 1997 out-of-pocket CAM expenditure was estimated at US$ 2,7 billion in the USA, and the world market for herbal medicines based on traditional knowledge is now estimated at US$ 60 billion [7].
Northern Peru is believed to be the center of the Central Andean Health Axis [8], and traditional medicinal practices in this region remain an important component of everyday life [9-13]. TM is also gaining acceptance by national governments and health providers. Peru's National Program in Complementary Medicine and the Pan American Health Organization recently compared Complementary Medicine to allopathic medicine in clinics and hospitals operating within the Peruvian Social Security System. The results showed that the cost of using Traditional Medicine was less than the cost of Western therapy. In addition, for each of the criteria evaluated -- clinical efficacy, user satisfaction, and future risk reduction -- Traditional Medicine 's efficacy was higher than that of conventional treatments, including fewer side effects, higher perception of efficacy by both the patients and the clinics, and a 53-63% higher cost efficiency of Traditional Medicine over that of conventional treatments for the selected conditions [14]. According to [6], the sustainable cultivation and harvesting of medicinal species is one of the most important challenges for the next few years.
The present study attempts to give an overview on medicinal plant species employed in Northern Peru in traditional remedies for reproductive problems and female health, and compare this use to the western scientific evidence regarding their efficacy.
Materials and Methods
Plant Collections
Plants for the present study were collected in the field, in markets, and at the homes of traditional healers (curanderos) in Northern Peru in 10 2-3 months long field visits between 2001 and 2009, as a larger scale project following initial collections in southern Ecuador (Figure 1). The same 116 informants (healers and market vendors) in the Trujillo and Chiclayo area were repeatedly interviewed during this time, using structured questionnaires. The informants were always provided with fresh (non-dried) plant material, either collected with them, by them, or available at their market stands. The questionnaires did not include any reference as to disease concepts, plant parts or preparations. In contrast, the participants were asked simple questions along the lines "What is this plant used for, which part, which quantity, how is it prepared, are any other plants added to the mixture." All questions were asked in the same order. All informants were of Mestizo origin, and spoke only Spanish as their native language, and all interviews were conducted in Spanish. The study covered the four existing medicinal plant markets of the region, and included all vendors present. All interviews were conducted with the same set of participants. The specimens are registered under the collection series "RBU/PL," "ISA," "GER," "JULS," "EHCHL," "VFCHL," "TRUBH," and "TRUVANERICA," depending on the year of fieldwork and collection location. Surveys were conducted in Spanish by fluent speakers. Surveyors would approach healers, collectors and market vendors and explain the premise for the study, including the goal of conservation of medicinal plants in the area.
Vouchers of all specimens were deposited at the Herbario Truxillensis (HUT, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo), and Herbario Antenor Orrego (HAO, Universidad Privada Antenor Orrego Trujillo). In order to recognize Peru's rights under the Convention on Biological Diversity, most notably with regard to the conservation of genetic resources in the framework of a study treating medicinal plants, the identification of the plant material was conducted entirely in Peru. No plant material collected either in this study in Northern Peru, or the previous study in Southern Ecuador was exported in any form whatsoever.
Species identification and nomenclature
The nomenclature of plant families, genera, and species follows the Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru [15] and the Catalogue of Vascular Plants of Ecuador [16]. The nomenclature was compared to the TROPICOS database. Species were identified using the available volumes of the Flora of Peru [17], as well as [18-20], and the available volumes of the Flora of Ecuador [21].
Results
A total of 105 plant species belonging to 91 genera and 62 families were documented and identified as herbal remedies for reproductive problems in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (9.52%), followed by Lamiaceae and Fabaceae (8.57% and 6.67%). Other families were less important, and 44 contributed only one species each to the pharmacopoeia (Table 1). The most important families are clearly represented very similarly to their overall importance in the local pharmacopoeia (Table 1) [9].
Table 1.
Family | Genera | Species | % | Medicinal flora of Northern Peru (most important families) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Asteraceae | 9 | 10 | 9.52 | 13.64 |
Lamiaceae | 7 | 9 | 8.57 | 4.87 |
Fabaceae | 6 | 7 | 6.67 | 6.82 |
Solanaceae | 2 | 4 | 3.81 | 4.09 |
Poaceae | 3 | 3 | 2.84 | 2.33 |
Cucurbitaceae | 1 | 3 | 2.84 | 1.75 |
Plantaginaceae | 1 | 3 | 2.84 | |
Amaranthaceae | 2 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Anacardiaceae | 2 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Boraginaceae | 2 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Brassicaceae | 2 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Euphorbiaceae | 2 | 2 | 1.92 | 2.33 |
Olacaceae | 2 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Rutaceae | 2 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Dioscoreaceae | 1 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Geraniaceae | 1 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Linaceae | 1 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Passifloraceae | 1 | 2 | 1.92 | |
Adiantaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Alstroemeriaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Amaryllidaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Apiaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | 2.14 |
Apocynaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Asclepiadaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Asphodelaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Balanophoraceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Bignoniaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Cactaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Convolvulaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Cupressaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Cyperaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Dipsacaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Ericaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Erythroxylaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Gentianaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Illiciaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Isoetaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Krameriaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Lauraceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Loganiaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Loranthaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Lythraceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Malvaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Menispermaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Moraceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Myristicaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Nyctaginaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Orchidaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Oxalidaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Polygonaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Polypodiaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Portulacaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Proteaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Ranunculaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Rosaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | 1.75 |
Rubiaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Thelypteridaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Thymeleaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Typhaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Urticaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Valerianaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Verbenaceae | 1 | 1 | 0.95 | |
Lycopodiaceae | 0 | 0 | 0.00 | 1.95 |
TOTAL | 91 | 105 | 100 |
The majority of herbal preparations for reproductive issues were prepared from the leaves of plants (22.72%), the whole plant (21.97%), and stems (21.21%), while other plant parts were used much less frequently (Table 2). This indicates that the local healers count on a very well developed knowledge about the properties of different plant parts. In almost 62% of the cases fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies, which differs little from the average herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru. Over 70% of the remedies were applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. Many remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Table 2.
Plant part | % | Species |
---|---|---|
Leaves | 22.72 | 30 |
Whole plant | 21.97 | 29 |
Stems | 21.21 | 28 |
Flowers | 9.85 | 13 |
Root | 8.33 | 11 |
Seeds | 6.82 | 9 |
Bark | 4.55 | 6 |
Fruit | 2.27 | 3 |
Latex | 1.52 | 2 |
Wood | 0.76 | 1 |
A complete overview of all plants encountered is given in Table 3.
Table 3.
Family/Genus/Species | Indigenous name | Plant part used | Admin. | Use | Coll. # |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ADIANTACEAE | |||||
Adiantum concinnum Wild. ex H.B.K. | Culantrillo del Pozo, Culantrillo | Leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Menstrual regulation | VFCHL29, TRUBH17, RBU/PL265, JULS149 |
AMARANTHACEAE | |||||
Alternanthera porrigens (Jacquin) Kuntze | Sanguinaria, Moradilla, Lancetilla | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Topical | Cleansing womb after childbirth | EHCHL142, ISA56, RBU/PL301, RBU/PL324, EHCHL93, GER117 |
Iresine diffusa H.B.K. ex Willd. | Paja Blanca, Sangrinaria | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Inflammation of the ovaries, Menstruation symptoms in adolescents | JULS75, ISA62 |
ALSTROEMERIACEAE | |||||
Bomarea angustifolia Benth. | Cachuljillo | Whole plant, dried | Oral | Infertility in women | ISA27 |
AMARYLLIDACEAE | |||||
Eustephia coccinea Cav. | Tumapara, Pomanpara, Puma Para, Para Para | Bark, fresh or dried | Oral | Inflammation of uterus | RBU/PL313, GER71, EHCHL68 |
ANACARDIACEAE | |||||
Mauria heterophylla H.B.K. | Shimir, Tres Hojas, Trinidad, Chacur, Ahimir, Feregreco | Leaves, fresh | 1. Oral 2. Topical |
1. Inflammation of uterus, Inflammation of the ovaries, Cysts, Fibroids 2. Vaginal cleansing |
ISA24, JULS17, EHCHL83 |
Schinus molle L. | Molle, Moy | Bark and Latex, fresh | Topical | Vaginal infection | EHCHL123, JULS196, GER13 |
APIACEAE | |||||
Petroselinum crispum (Miller) A.W. Hill | Perejil | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Regulation of menstrual cycle | ISA80, EHCHL31, ISA117, RBU/PL278, JULS225 |
APOCYNACEAE | |||||
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Schum. | Mailchin, Maichil, Camalonga, Cabalonga | Seeds, dried | Oral | Menopause | EHCHL162, TRUVan/Erica19, JULS187, EHCHL174, GER225 |
ASCLEPIADACEAE | |||||
Sarcostemma clausum (Jacquin) Schultes | Marrajudio | Leaves, Stems, fresh | Oral | Promoting lactation in women after birth | JULS121, GER43 |
ASPHODELACEAE | |||||
Aloe vera (L.) Burm f. | Sabila, Zabila, Aloe, Hojas de Sabila, Aloe Vera | Leaves, fresh | Topcial | Vaginal inflammation, Vaginal ulcers, Vaginal cancer | JULS274, GER22, EHCHL165, VFCHL10 |
ASTERACEAE | |||||
Ambrosia peruviana Willd. | Altamisa, Marco, Artamisa, Manzanilla del Muerto, Ajenjo, Llatama Negra Malera, Llatama Roja Malera | Leaves and Stems, fresh | Topical | After birth to reduce inflamation and prevent spasms in the woman's womb | JULS108, TRUBH18, RBU/PL370, TRUBH15, JULS90, GER9, GER110 |
Artemisia absinthium L. | Ajenco | Whole plant, preferably Leaves and Stems, fresh | Oral | Menstrual colics, Menstration, Regulating the menstrual cycle | ISA66, RBU/PL363, GER146 |
Chuquiraga spinosa sp. huamanpinta C. Ezcurra | Chuquiragua, Huamanpinta | Leaves, dried | Oral | Prostate, Prostate inflammation, Sexual impotence | EHCHL168, TRUBH9, JULS276, RBU/PL373 |
Clibadium cf. sylvestre (Aubl.) Baill. | Flor de Novia | Flowers, Leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | Topical | Before marriage | EHCHL80 |
Matricaria frigidum (HBK) Kunth | Manzanilla | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Topical | Inflammation of the vagina | JULS22, EHCHL1, TRUBH7 |
Matricaria recutita L. | Manzanillon, Agua de la Banda, Manzanilla Blanca, Manzanilla Amarga, Manzanilla | Whole plant, fresh | Topical | 1. Vaginal cleansing 2. Menstrual colics |
JULS192, RBU/PL306, ISA120, ISA76, GER145 |
Monactis flaverioides H.B.K. | Hierba del Susto (Amarillo), Malva, Mocura, Hierba del Susto, Hierba Susto | Stems and Leaves, fresh | 1. Topical 2. Oral |
1., 2. Vaginal cleansing | EHCHL19, RBU/PL274, TRUVan/Erica7, ISA104, ISA72 |
Paranephelius uniflorus Poepp. & Endl. | Pacha Rosa, Carapa de Chancho | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Oral | Inflammation of the ovaries, Uterus, Inflammation (internal female parts | EHCHL133, JULS125 |
Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze | Canchalagua, Canchalagua (Chica) | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Menstrual delay, Allergies, Menstruation | RBU/PL266, JULS42, VFCHL27, GER228 |
Taraxacum officinale Wiggers | Diente de Leon, Amargon | Whole plant, fresh | Topical | Ovaries | RBU/PL252, JULS150, GER62, GER189 |
BALANOPHORACEAE | |||||
Corynaea crassa Hook. F. | Huanarpo (hembra & macho) | Tuber/Root, fresh | Oral | Fertility, Sexual potency, Male impotence | JULS171, VFCHL52 |
BIGNONIACEAE | |||||
Crescentia cujete L. | Higueron | Latex from Leaf, fresh | Topical | Healing of belly button after birth | JULS164 |
BORAGINACEAE | |||||
Cordia lutea Lam. | Overo, Flor de Overo, Overal | Flowers, fresh or dried | Oral | Prostate inflammation. | ISA125, EHCHL77, JULS62, GER10 |
Tiquilia paronychoides (Phil.) Rich. | Flor de Arena, Paja de Lagartija, Mano de Raton | Flowers, fresh or dried | Oral | Inflammation of the ovaries | JULS154, EHCHL107, ISA58, GER20 |
BRASSICACEAE | |||||
Brassica rapa L. | Nabo | Root, fresh | Topical | Ovaries | JULS201 |
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic. | Bolsita del Pastor, Hierba del Pastor, Bolsa de Pastor | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Oral | Prostate | JULS7, VFCHL42, VFCHL12, RBU/PL257, EHCHL6 |
CACTACEAE | |||||
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller | Tuna | Leaves, fresh | Topical | Hair loss | JULS263, GER3 |
CONVOLVULACEAE | |||||
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lamarck | Camote | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Promoting lactation in women after giving birth | JULS120 |
CUCURBITACEAE | |||||
Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. | Jaboncillo de Campo, Jaboncillo, Patito de Campo | Fruits, fresh | Topical | Hair loss (prevention), Stopping baby from breastfeeding | JULS174, GER35, JULS221 |
Cucurbita maxina Duch. | Zapallo | Flowers and joints of Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Preventing miscarriage | JULS272 |
Cucurbita moschata Duch. | Zapallo | Flowers and joints of Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Preventing miscarriage | GER32 |
CUPRESSACEAE | |||||
Cupressus lusitanica Miller | Cipre, Cipres | Whole plant, fresh | 1. Oral 2. Topical |
1. Vaginal hemorrhage 2. Hair loss |
RBU/PL288, JULS302 |
CYPERACEAE | |||||
Oreobolos goeppingeri Sues | Hierba Chupaflor, Hierba de Suerte, Hierba del Carpintero | Leaves, dried | 1. Topical | Aphrodisiac | EHCHL149, TRUVan/Erica17, EHCHL67, GER119 |
DIOSCOREACEAE | |||||
Dioscorea tambillensis Kunth | Papa Semitona | Tuber, fresh | Oral | Inflammation of ovaries | JULS283, GER140 |
Dioscorea trifida L.f. | Papa Madre, Papa Pacta | Tuber, fresh | 1. Oral 2. Topical |
1. Uterus disease and discharge, Cysts, Cancer of the Uterus, Inflammation of the ovaries, Vaginal discharge, 2. Fungus, Vaginal cleansing, Cancer of the Uterus |
JULS214, EHCHL40, JULS212, GER142, JULS213 |
DIPSACACEAE | |||||
Scabiosa atropurpurea L. | Ambarina, Ambarina Negra, Flor de Ambarina | Flowers, fresh | 1. Oral 2. Inhaled |
Menstrual regulation | JULS100, EHCHL111, RBU/PL372, ISA50 |
ERICACEAE | |||||
Bejaria aestuans L. | Pullunrosa, Cadillo, Payama, Hierba de la Postema, Purenrosa, Rosada, Hierba del buen querer | Flowers, Leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | 1. Oral | Prostate, Menstrual regulation, Inflammation of uterus, Cysts, Inflammation of ovaries, Inflammation of the womb, Uterus, Menstrual pain | VFCHL22, JULS50, EHCHL39, ISA114, ISA43, JULS234, GER121 |
ERYTHROXYLACEAE | |||||
Erythroxylon coca Lam. | Coca | Leaves, dried | Oral | Induce child birth, Strength for woman during childbirth, Helping delivery of newborn | JULS144, GER201 |
EUPHORBIACEAE | |||||
Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millspaugh | Lecherita, Lechera | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Promoting lactation in women after birth | JULS67, GER41 |
Manhiot esculenta Crantz | Yuca | Tuber, fresh | Oral | Vaginal infection, Vaginal discharge | GER192 |
FABACEAE | |||||
Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze | Tara, Talla, Chanchalagua | Seeds pods, fresh or dried | Topical | Fungus, Inflammation of ovaries, Inflammation of uterus, Inflammation of the vagina | ISA55, EHCHL27, VFCHL21, JULS255, GER143 |
Desmodium molliculum (H.B.K.) DC. | Pie de Perro, Pata-Perro, Pata de Perro, Chancas de Comida, Muña, Manayupa | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Topical | Inflammation of the ovaries, Inflammation of the womb | JULS41, RBU/PL268, GER135, JULS44, EHCHL109, RBU/PL256 |
Indigofera suffruticosa Miller | Añil | Stems, fresh | Oral | Cleaning of the woman, Expelling placenta from woman after giving birth | GER198 |
Inga edulis C. Martius | Huaba, Pacae, Guava, Pacai | Flowers, fresh | Topical | Hair growth | JULS168, JULS304, GER17 |
Inga feuillei DC. | Huaba, Pacae, Guava, Pacai | Flowers, fresh | Topical | Hair growth | JULS168, JULS304, GER17 |
Mimosa nothacacia Barneby | Uña de Gato de la Costa | Bark, dried | Topical | Anus cyst, Vaginal pimples, Anal pimples | JULS265, GER199 |
Prosopis pallida (H. & B. ex Willd.) H.B.K. | Algarrobo | Seeds, dried | Oral | Sexual potency | JULS97, GER8 |
GENTIANACEAE | |||||
Gentianella bruneotricha (Gilg.) J.S. Pringle. | Anga Macha | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Infection of the uterus, After giving birth | JULS282 |
GERANIACEAE | |||||
Pelargonium odoratisimum (L.) L'Herit. | Malva de Oro, Malva de Olor, Malva Olorosa | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Oral | Inflammation of the ovaries, Inflammation of the womb | TRUVan/Erica14, TRUBH6, EHCHL89, JULS188 |
Pelargonium roseum Willd. | Geranio | Flowers and Leaves, fresh | Oral | Hemorrhages, Uterus pain, Inflammation of the uterus | JULS84 |
ILLICIACEAE | |||||
Illicium verum Hook. f. | Anis Estrella | Seeds, dried | Oral | Expel residues of feces in stomach of newborn babies | JULS102 |
ISOETACEAE | |||||
Isoetes andina R. & P. | Piri Piri | Stems, fresh | Oral | Male impotence | ISA100 |
KRAMERIACEAE | |||||
Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Berdet & B. Simpson | Ratania, Raima | Leaves and Root, fresh | Oral | Inflammation of the ovaries | JULS53 |
LAMIACEAE | |||||
Lepechinia meyenii (Walpers) Epling | Salvia, Salvia Real | Whole plant, fresh or dried | 1. Oral 2. Topical |
1. Menstruation 2. Hair loss |
RBU/PL303, VFCHL17, ISA91 |
Mentha spicata L. | Hierba Buena, Hierba Buena Silvestre, Menta | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Aphrodisiac | RBU/PL308, EHCHL74, RBU/PL267, JULS72, VFCHL3, JULS20, GER15, GER134, JULS20 |
Ocimum basilicum L. | Albaca Mistura, Albaca Negra, Albaca, Albaca Morada, Albahaca (costa) | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | 1. To promote dialation of the uterus, Hasten delivery, Preventing infections related to birth, Refreshing womb, Reducing inflammation after birth 2. After birth |
JULS54, EHCHL48, VFCHL13, RBU/PL284, TRUVan/Erica8, GER191 |
Origanum majorana L. | Mejorana | Leaves and Stems, fresh | Oral | Menstration | EHCHL88, JULS19, RBU/PL317, GER165 |
Origanum vulgare L. | Oregano | Leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Menstrual cramps, Menstration, Lower stomach cramps related to PMS | JULS205, GER114 |
Rosmarinus officinalis L. | Romero, Romero Castilla | Leaves, fresh or dried | Topical | Hair loss | RBU/PL329, ISA78, TRUBH11, EHCHL3, JULS27, VFCHL2, ISA105 |
Salvia discolor H.B.K. | Palmeras (Chica), Llatama, Yatama | Stems, fresh | 1. Topcial 2. Oral |
1. Preventing infections related to birth, Fright/Susto in children 2. Preventing infections related to birth |
ISA93, ISA151(93a), ISA25 |
Salvia officinalis L. | Salvia | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Oral | Control and regulate menstrual cycle | JULS241 |
Satureja pulchella (H.B.K.) Briquet | Panizara, Panisara | Leaves, fresh or dried | Oral | Menstrual delay | GER148, JULS43 |
LAURACEAE | |||||
Persea americana Mill. | Palta | Seeds, fresh | Oral | Contraceptive, Sterilization for women only | JULS211, GER18 |
LINACEAE | |||||
Linum sativum L. | Linaza | Seeds, dried | Oral | Inflammation of the prostate | EHCHL1599 |
Linum usitatissimum L. | Linaza | Seeds, dried | Oral | Inflammation of the prostate | JULS185, GER139 |
LOGANIACEAE | |||||
Buddleja utilis Kraenzl. | Flor Blanca | Flowers, fresh or dried | Oral | Menstruation, Inflammation of the womb, Ovarian cysts, Inflammation of uterus | RBU/PL333, EHCHL38, ISA60, JULS155, GER136 |
LORANTHACEAE | |||||
Tristerix longibracteatus (Des.) Barlow & Wiens | Suelda con Suelda | Whole plant, dried | Oral | Vaginal discharge (white or yellow) | JULS296, GER74 |
LYTHRACEAE | |||||
Cuphea strigulosa H.B.K. | Lancetilla, Gacetilla, Sanguinaria, Gansetilla, Hierba del Toro | Leaves and Stems, fresh | Oral | Discharges | GER104, EHCHL35, VFCHL34, JULS33, ISA51, RBU/PL259, EHCHL43, JULS59, ISA53, GER147 |
MALVACEAE | |||||
Malva sylvestris L. | Malva (Chica), Malva Blanca | Leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | Topical | Vaginal cleansing | VFCHL49, EHCHL29 |
MENISPERMACEAE | |||||
Abuta grandiflora (Mart.) Sand. | Abuta (male and female) | Root and Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Contraceptive | JULS88, RBU/PL312 |
MORACEAE | |||||
Brosmium rubescens Taubert | Palo Sangre, Palo de la Sangre, Ablita | Wood and Bark, fresh or dried | Oral | 1. Fertility, Sexual potency 2. Haemorrhages (prevention and healing |
JULS209, ISA49, EHCHL64, RBU/PL311, GER86, EHCHL62 |
MYRISTICACEAE | |||||
Myristica fragrans L. | Nuez Moscada, Ajonjoli | Seeds, dried | Oral | Fertility, Sexual potency | RBU/PL385, EHCHL155, JULS292, GER197 |
NYCTAGINACEAE | |||||
Mirabilis jalapa L. | Buenas Tardes | Root, fresh | Oral | Prostate, Pre-prostate cancer | JULS116, GER185 |
OLACACEAE | |||||
Heisteria acuminata (H. & B.) Engler | Chuchuasi, Chuchuhuasi | Bark, fresh or dried | Oral | Sexual potency | RBU/PL287, JULS138, GER164 |
Ximenia americana L. | Limoncillo | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Oral | Menstrual regulation | JULS184 |
ORCHIDACEAE | |||||
Aa paleacea (H.B.K.) Rchb. f. | Hierba de la Soledad, Hierba Sola | Leaves, fresh | Oral | Contraceptive, Sterilization of women | ISA141, EHCHL75 |
OXALIDACEAE | |||||
Oxalis tuberosa Molina | Oca Rosada | Tuber, fresh | Oral | Sexual potency | JULS203 |
PASSIFLORACEAE | |||||
Passiflora quardrangularis L. | Hojas de Tumbo | Leaves, fresh | Oral | Menstrual pain | EHCHL135 |
Passiflora sp. | Chulgan | Leaves and Stems, dried | Oral | Promoting vaginal dilation during childbirth. | JULS279 |
PLANTAGINACEAE | |||||
Plantago major L. | Llantén | Leaves, fresh | Topical | Vaginal cleansing | VFCHL50, EHCHL11, TRUVan/Erica13 |
Plantago sericea R. & P. var. lanuginosa Grieseb. | Pajilla Blanca | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Oral | Vaginal discharge | JULS207 |
Plantago sericea R. & P. subsp. sericans (Pilger) Rahn | Paja Blanca | Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Ovarian pain, Inflammation of the ovaries, Inflammation of the womb | RBU/PL335, EHCHL96 |
POACEAE | |||||
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Persoon | Grama Dulce | Stems, dried | Oral | Cysts of the ovary, Cysts of the uterus, Uterus, Fibroids, Uterus prolapse | ISA61, JULS73, ISA106, GER151 |
Saccharum officinarum L. | Azucar de Caña, Caña de Azucar, Caña Dulce | 1. Fresh sugar 2. Stems, fresh |
1. Topical 2. Oral |
1. Aphrodisiac 2. Inflammation of the prostate |
VFCHL4, JULS123, GER208 |
Triticum sativum L. | Trigo | Seeds, dried | Topical | Vaginal infection, Vaginal discharge | GER182 |
POLYGONACEAE | |||||
Rumex crispus L. | Acelga, Lengua de Vaca, Hojas de Mala Hierba | Whole plant, fresh | 1. Oral 2. Topical |
1. Infection of the uterus 2. Inflamation (internal woman parts), Vaginal inflammation |
JULS70, EHCHL173 |
POLYPODIACEAE | |||||
Polypodium crassifolium L. | Lengua de Ciervo, Calaguala | Stems, fresh | Oral | Prostate | EHCHL71, TRUBH38, RBU/PL331, RBU/PL332, JULS52, JULS303 |
PORTULACACEAE | |||||
Portulaca villosa H.B.K. | Verdolaga | Root and Stems, fresh | Topical | Hair loss | GER171 |
PROTEACEAE | |||||
Oreocallis grandiflora (Lam.) R.Br. | Rumilanche, Bunbun, Huaminga | Leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Inflammation of the ovaries, Inflammation of uterus | EHCHL127, JULS31, ISA28, ISA70 |
RANUNCULACEAE | |||||
Laccopetalum giganteum (Wedd.) Ulbrich | Huamanripa, Pacra, Flor de Guarmarya | Leaves, fresh or dried | Oral | Fertilization (Heat Ovaries) | VFCHL53, RBU/PL321, EHCHL42, JULS284, GER162 |
ROSACEAE | |||||
Sanguisorba minor Scop. | Pimpinela, Flor de Overa | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Menstrual regulation | EHCHL117, TRUBH35, RBU/PL262, ISA57, JULS25, ISA147(103a), VFCHL20, GER170 |
RUBIACEAE | |||||
Cinchona officinalis L. | Cascarilla, Quinuagiro | Bark, dried | Oral | Fertility, Sexual potency | RBU/PL314, JULS127, ISA19, GER167 |
RUTACEAE | |||||
Ruta graveolens L. | Ruda, Ruda (Macho y Hembra), Hierba del Quinde | Whole plant, fresh | 1. Oral 2. Topical |
1. Abortion 2. Aphrodisiac. |
ISA152, JULS1, TRUVan/Erica20, EHCHL128, VFCHL16, ISA145(108a), GER24 |
Pouteria lucuma (R. & P.) Kuntze. | Lucuma | Fruit, fresh | Oral | Promoting lactation on women after giving birth | JULS186 |
SOLANACEAE | |||||
Cestrum auriculatum L'Herit | Hierba Santa, Agrasejo | Leaves, fresh or dried | Topical | Preventing spasms after giving birth, Warming women | JULS166, RBU/PL281, EHCHL172, ISA122, GER174, EHCHL102 |
Cestrum strigilatum R. & P. | Santa María | Flowers, leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Control and regulate menstrual cycle | JULS245 |
Cestrum undulatum R. & P. | Santa María | Flowers, leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Control and regulate menstrual cycle | JULS246 |
Solanum tuberosum L. | Chuno de Papa | Tuber, dried | Oral | After childbirth complications | JULS140, JULS141 |
THELYPTERIDACEAE | |||||
Thelypteris cf. scalaris (Christ.) Alton | Helecho Macho | Whole plant, fresh or dried | Oral | Contraceptive | JULS291 |
THYMELEACEAE | |||||
Daphnopsis weberbaueri Domke | Los Cholitos, Cholitos | Seeds, dried | Oral | Infertility in women | EHCHL153, JULS137, GER216 |
TYPHACEAE | |||||
Typha angustifolia L. | Chante | Stems, dried | Oral | Prostate | ISA45 |
URTICACEAE | |||||
Pilea microphylla (L.) Lieberman | Contra Hierba | Whole plant, fresh | Oral | Prostate, Cysts | RBU/PL282, EHCHL33 |
VALERIANACEAE | |||||
Phyllactis rigida (R. & P.) Persoon | Hornamo Estrella, Siete Sabios, Valeriana Estrella, Valeriana, Hierba de la Estrella | Stems, fresh | Oral | Menopause | EHCHL163, TRUBH30, JULS57, EHCHL44, JULS46, ISA137, RBU/PL365, RBU/PL355, GER187 |
VERBENACEAE | |||||
Lantana scabiosaefolia H.B.K. | Mastrando, Mastrante | Leaves and Stems, fresh or dried | Oral | Cold of the ovaries, Menstruation, Women after childbirth to avoid colds | VFCHL51, GER6 |
Discussion
Little scientific evidence exists to prove the efficacy of the species employed as reproductive disorder remedies in Northern Peru. Only 34% of the plants found or their congeners have been studied at all for their medicinal properties. Aloe spp. are known to have oestrogenic activity [22,23]. [24] reported that Artemisia spp. had effects on female health amongst the Cumash. A variety of other Asteraceae has been shown to be used against menopausal symptoms (Clibadium: [25]; Matricaria: [26-28]; Taraxacum: [29,30]. [23] found hormonal effects in Cordia sp., while [31-35] reported on anti-fertility effects of Dioscorea sp. Cupressus sp. are well known abortifacients (e.g. [36]), while pumpkin seed oil showed testosterone-inhibitory effects (e.g. [23,37-39]). Chamaesyce sp. showed promise in the treatment of male infertility, while Mimosa sp. on the contrary are used to reduce spermal fertility [23,40].
A wide range of Lamiaceae have been shown to exhibit contraceptive efficacy, and the same species are used in Peru for similar purposes (Mentha spp.: [41-44]; Ocimum spp.: [45-48]; Origanum majorana: [44,49,50]; Rosmarinus officinalis: [40]). Similar efficacy has been shown for Sanguisorba officinalis [51], and Ruta graveolens [23,52-55].
Various species of Passiflora have aphrodisiac activity [56-60], and Myristica fragrans as well as Syzygium aromaticum [61,62], and extracts of Lantana camara [63,64] and Pilea spp. [23] fulfil the same purpose, while Portulaca oleracea showed efficacy in relieving uterine bleeding [65,66].
Conclusions
Infections of the reproductive tract, complications after childbirth, and reproductive problems continue to be a major health challenge worldwide. An impressive number of plant species is traditionally used to remedy such afflictions, and some have been investigated for their efficacy with positive results. An often-limiting factor to these investigations is lack of comprehensive ethnobotanical data to help choose plant candidates for potency/efficacy tests. Since the plant parts utilized in preparation of the remedies are reported in this survey, it serves as an indication of species that may need further ecological assessment on their regeneration status.
The results of this study show that both indigenous and introduced species are used for the treatment of reproductive system problems. The information gained on frequently used traditional remedies might give some leads for future targets for further analysis in order to develop new drugs. However, more detailed scientific studies are desperately needed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of the remedies employed traditionally.
Declaration of competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
RB collected/identified plant material analysis of the data as well as writing the manuscript. AG conducted fieldwork, data analysis and manuscript composition. Both authors have read and approved the final manuscript
Contributor Information
Rainer W Bussmann, Email: rainer.bussmann@mobot.org.
Ashley Glenn, Email: ashley.glenn@mobot.org.
Acknowledgements
The presented study was financed through MIRT/MHIRT (Minority Health Disparity International Research and Training) a grant from the National Institutes of Health (Fund: 54112B MHIRT Program, Grant: G0000613). Fieldwork for this project was supported through the assistance of a large number of MIRT/MHIRT students and volunteers. Thanks to all of them. None of the work would have been possible without the invaluable collaboration of Douglas Sharon and our Peruvian colleagues, especially curanderas Julia Calderón, Isabel Chinguel, and Olinda Pintado, curanderos Germán Santisteban and Leoncio Carrión, and herbalists Manuel Bejarano, Elmer Cruz, and Iván Cruz. Thanks also go to Eric Rodriguez (Herbarium Truxillense, HUT) and Abundio Sagastegui, Segundo Leiva, and Mario Zapata (Herbario Antenor Orrego, HAO) for the use of their facilities and their assistance in plant identification.
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