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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2012 Feb 1.
Published in final edited form as: Stroke. 2010 Dec 16;42(2):465–470. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.602755

The role of iron in brain injury after intraventricular hemorrhage

Zhi Chen 1, Chao Gao 1, Ya Hua 1, Richard F Keep 1, Karin Muraszko 1, Guohua Xi 1
PMCID: PMC3078056  NIHMSID: NIHMS259897  PMID: 21164132

Abstract

Background and Purpose

Intraventricular extension of hemorrhage is a predictor of poor outcome in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and iron overload contributes to brain injury after ICH. The current study investigated the role of iron in ventricular dilatation and neuronal death in a rat model of intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH).

Methods

There were two parts in this study. First, male Sprague-Dawley rats had a 200-μl injection of either autologous blood or saline into the right lateral ventricle and were euthanized at different time points. Rats had magnetic resonance imaging and brains were used for Western blot analysis, immunohistochemistry, histology and brain tissue non-heme iron measurements. Second, rats had IVH and were treated with deferoxamine (DFX) or vehicle, and rats were euthanized 4 weeks later for brain tissue loss and lateral ventricle size measurements.

Results

IVH resulted in brain iron accumulation, bilateral enlargement of the lateral ventricles and hippocampal brain tissue loss. Iron accumulation was associated with upregulation of heme oxygenase-1 and ferritin. Systemic DFX treatment reduced IVH-induced ventricular enlargement (e.g. day 28: 32.7±10.6 vs. 43.8±9.7 mm3 in vehicle-treated group, n=8–9, p<0.05) and hippocampal brain tissue loss (hippocampal volume: 89.0±2.7 vs. 85.2±4.1 mm3 in the vehicle-treated group, p<0.05).

Conclusions

Iron has a role in brain injury following IVH. DFX may be a therapy for patients with IVH or intraventricular extension after ICH.

Keywords: intraventricular hemorrhage, deferoxamine, hydrocephalus, iron

Introduction

Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) occurs in up to 50% of patients with primary intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and 45% of patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) 1–3. Recent studies have found IVH is a predictor of poor outcome after ICH 1, 2. According to the International Surgical Trial in ICH, hydrocephalus develops in 55% patients with IVH 1. That trial also showed that in ICH patients having IVH lowers the favorable outcome from 31.4% to 15.1%, and that the presence of hydrocephalus lowers the likelihood of favorable outcome further to 11.5%. The mechanisms of IVH-induced hydrocephalus are not well understood.

Iron overload occurs in the brain after ICH and has a key role in ICH-induced brain damage. It is known that increased brain iron levels contribute to brain edema, oxidative injury and brain atrophy following ICH 4–6. Our previous studies showed that free iron levels in CSF increase almost 14-fold after ICH on the third day, and remain high for at least 28 days after ICH7. In patients with SAH, CSF iron levels are approximately 10-fold higher than in control patients 8. Deferoxamine (DFX), an iron chelator, can reduce hemorrhagic and ischemic brain injury. Our recent studies have shown that DFX reduces ICH-induced brain injury in aged rats and piglets9–11.

Long-term ventricular dilatation has been previously observed in a rat model of IVH in our laboratory 12. We hypothesized that iron may have a role in hydrocephalus and brain damage after IVH. The current study examined that hypothesis and determined the effect of DFX on IVH-induced brain injury.

Materials and Methods

Animals Preparation and Intraventicular Injection

Animal use protocols were approved by the University of Michigan Committee on the Use and Care of Animals. A total 114 male Sprague–Dawley rats (Charles River Laboratories, Portage, MI), weighing 250 to 350 g, were used in this study. Animals were anesthetized with pentobarbital (50 mg/kg intraperitoneally) and the right femoral artery was catheterized to monitor arterial blood pressure, blood pH, PaO2, PaCO2, hematocrit and glucose levels. Core body temperature was maintained at 37.5°C with a feedback-controlled heating pad. Rats were then positioned in a stereotaxic frame (Kopf Instruments, Tujunga, CA). A cranial burr hole (1 mm) was drilled and a 26-gauge needle was inserted stereotaxically into the right lateral ventricle (coordinates: 0.6 mm posterior, 4.5 mm ventral, and 1.6 mm lateral to the bregma). Autologuous arterial blood or saline was infused at a rate of 14 μl/min using a microinfusion pump (World Precision Instruments Inc., Sarasota, FL). The needle was removed after injection, the burr hole was filled with bone wax and the skin incision closed with sutures.

Experimental Groups

These experiments were performed in two parts. In the first part, rats received an injection of 200 μl autologous whole blood or saline into the right lateral ventricle. Some rats (IVH, n=5–7 per time point; saline control, n=3–7 per time point) were euthanized at days 1, 3, 7 and 28 for immunohistochemistry. For the rats euthanized at day 28, serial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were performed at days 1, 3, 7, 14 and 28. For non-heme iron measurement and Western blot analysis, rats (non-heme iron, n=6 for each group; Western blots, n=4 for each group) were killed at days 1, 3 and 7. In the second part, rats received an injection of autologous whole blood (200-μl) into the right lateral ventricle and had DFX (100 mg/kg i.m., n=9) or vehicle (same volume of saline, n=8) treatment at 2 and 6 hours after IVH and then every 12 h for 7 days. MRI scans were conducted at days 1, 3, 7, 14 and 28 after IVH and the rats were then euthanized for brain histology.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Volume Measurement

Imaging was carried out in a 7.0-T Varian MR scanner (183-mm horizontal bore; Varian, Palo Alto, CA). Rats were anesthetized with 2% isoflurane/air mixture throughout MRI examination. The imaging protocol for all rats included both a T2 fast spin-echo sequence (TR/TE=4000/60 msec) and a T2* gradient-echo (GRE) sequence (TR/TE=250/5 msec). The field of view was 35×35 mm, and the matrix was 256×128 mm. 25 coronal slices (0.5mm thick) were acquired to cover the entire axis of the lateral ventricles. All image analysis was performed using Image J. Lateral ventricular volumes were calculated from T2 images as described before 10. Bilateral ventricles were outlined and the areas were measured. Ventricular volume was obtained by combining the ventricle areas over all slices showing the lateral ventricles and multiplying by section thickness (0.5 mm). Volume measurements were carried out by a blinded observer. Volume of intraventricular hypointensity, representing hemorrhage and iron accumulation, was calculated from T2* GRE MRI using the same method as for intraventricular volume. Hippocampal volume was also calculated from T2 images using the above method with some modification 13. Bilateral hippocampal areas were outlined and measured. Hippocampal areas in ten MRI slices, from the first to last slice (−2.12 to approximately −6.62mm from bregma), were combined and multiplied by section thickness (0.5 mm) to calculate hippocampal volume.

Immunohistochemistry

Rats were anesthetized with pentobarbital (100 mg/kg; i.p.) and perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M pH 7.4 phosphate-buffered saline. The brains were removed and kept in 4% paraformaldehyde for 4 to 6 hours, then immersed in 30% sucrose for 3 to 4 days at 4°C. The brains were embedded in optimal cutting temperature compound (Sakura Finetek USA, Inc., Torrance, CA) and 18-μm-thick slices were cut using a cryostat. Immunohistochemical studies were performed using the avidin–biotin complex technique as previously described 14. The primary antibodies were polyclonal rabbit anti-rat heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) IgG (StressGene; 1:200 dilution), polyclonal rabbit anti-human ferritin IgG (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark; 1:400 dilution), and mouse anti-rat neuronal nuclei (NeuN) IgG (Chemicon International Inc., Temecula, CA, USA; 1:400 dilution).

Cell Counts

Immunopositive cells were assessed on images taken by a digital camera using two sections at approximately −3.3mm from bregma. Three high-power images (×40 magnification) per section were taken in the hippocampus or in the periventricular area. HO-1 and ferritin positive cells were counted on the hippocampus and periventricular area. NeuN positive cells were counted on the hippocampus. Cell counts were performed by a blinded observer. All measurements were repeated three times and the mean value was used.

Western Blot Analysis

Western blot analysis was performed as previously described15. The brains were perfused with saline before decapitation. The hippocampus and periventricular brain tissue (~1 mm thick brain tissue around the ventricle) were sampled. The primary antibodies were polyclonal rabbit anti-rat HO-1 IgG (1:2000 dilution, StressGene), rabbit anti-ferritin heavy chain polyclonal antibody (1:2000 dilution, Cell Signaling Technology) and goat anti-ferritin light chain polyclonal antibody (1:2000 dilution, Abnova). The relative densities of bands were analyzed with NIH ImageJ. HO-1 and ferritin levels were expressed as % of saline control.

Non-Heme Brain Tissue Iron Determination

Rats were killed at 1, 3 and 7 days after IVH or saline injection. The brains were perfused with saline before decapitation. Left and right hemisphere were sampled and weighed. Non-heme brain tissue iron was determined as previously described 14. Non-heme iron levels in IVH rats were expressed as % of saline control.

Statistical Analysis

Values are given as means ± S.D. Student t tests or Mann-Whitney U test were used for analyze the data. Differences were considered significant at p<0.05.

Results

Intraventricular injection of autologous arterial blood resulted in marked enlargement of cerebral lateral ventricles. Lateral ventricular volumes in IVH rats were much larger than in rats receiving saline injection at 24 hours (61.7 ± 5.7 vs. 8.4 ± 1.3 mm3 in saline group, p<0.01, Figure 1A) through 4 weeks (40.4±6.8 vs. 10.1±8.0 mm3, p<0.01, Figure 1A).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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(A) T2 weighted MRI scans (coronal brain sections) at day 1 after saline injection and IVH, and the time-course of lateral ventricular volume changes. Values are mean ±S.D., n=7, #p<0.01 vs. saline group. (B) Measurement of hippocampus volume with T2 weighted MRI four weeks after saline infusion and IVH. The hippocampus is outlined on the images. The hippocampus volumes are expressed as the means ± SD, n=7, # p<0.01 versus saline group.

Four weeks after IVH, hippocampal volumes were smaller in IVH rats compared to saline injected controls (87.0±2.6 mm3, vs. 102.2±5.1mm3 in the saline group, p<0.01, Figure 1B). There was also a significant reduction of NeuN-positive cells in CA1 area of hippocampus in IVH rats (109±26 vs. 165±40 cells/mm in saline group, p<0.01) at this time point. Although IVH caused neuronal death in the hippocampus, no mortality was found in this rat IVH model.

T2* weighted MRI was used to examine iron accumulation after IVH. T2* lesions were mainly located in the lateral ventricle of the injection side at 1 day after blood injection. Thereafter, the T2* lesion volume progressively declined but lesions were still observable at day 28, when they were mainly at the edge of the lateral ventricles (Figure 2A). Brain non-heme iron levels were significantly increased at days 3 and 7 (Figure 2B).

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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(A) T2* weighted MRI scans (coronal sections) at day 1 and day 28 after IVH, and the time-course of the T2* lesion (hypodensity) after IVH. Values are expressed as the means ± S.D., n=7. (B) Time course of non-heme brain tissue iron in the left and right hemisphere after IVH. Values are mean ± S.D., n=6, *p<0.05 vs. saline control (same time point) and day 1.

Brain HO-1 and ferritin levels were examined by Western blots and immunohistochemistry. Brain HO-1 levels were increased after IVH (Figure 3A). HO-1 positive cells were detected in the brain after either IVH or saline control although they were much more prevalent after IVH (Figures 3). In IVH rats, HO-1-positive cells were increased at all the time points in the hippocampus and the periventricular area. Expression peaked at day 3 and then decreased with time (Figure 3). Most HO-1 positive cells were glia-like cells. Ferritin-positive cells were also significantly increased in the hippocampus and the periventricular area after IVH and high expression levels were maintained for 4 weeks (Figure 4). Western blot analysis showed levels of both ferritin light chain and ferritin heavy chain were increased following IVH (Figure 5).

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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(A) Upper panel: Representative Western blots showing increases of HO-1 levels in the hippocampus 7 days after IVH or saline control. Lower panel: Time course of HO-1 in the hippocampus and in the periventricular area. Values are mean±S.D., n=4, *p<0.05 vs. saline control. (B) Immunoreactivity for HO-1 in hippocampus and periventricular area day 3 after IVH or saline injection. Scale bar = 20 μm. (C, D) Time course of HO-1 expression in the hippocampus (C) and in the periventricular area (D). Values are mean ± SD, n=3~7 in saline group and n=5~7 in IVH group, *p<0.05 and #p<0.01 vs. saline group.

Figure 4.

Figure 4

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(A) Immunoreactivity of ferritin in the hippocampus and the periventricular area day 28 after IVH or saline control. Scale bar = 20 μm. (B) Time course of ferritin levels in the hippocampus. (C) Time course of ferritin levels in the periventricular area. Values are mean ± SD, n=3~7 in saline group and n=5~7 in IVH group, *p<0.05 and #p<0.01 vs. saline group.

Figure 5.

Figure 5

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(A, C) Representative Western blots showing ferritin L-chain (A) and ferritin H-chain (C) levels in the hippocampus 7 days after IVH or saline control. (B, D) Time course of ferritin L-chain (B) and ferritin H-chain (D) in the hippocampus and in the periventricular area. Values are mean±S.D., n=4, *p<0.05 vs. saline control. ND=not detected.

DFX treatment (100 mg/kg, i.m. at 2 and 6 hours after IVH and then every 12 h for 7 days) reduced lateral ventricular volume significantly at 2 weeks (34.0 ±8.9 vs. 44.0±10.2 mm3 in vehicle-treated group, p<0.05) and 4 weeks (32.7±10.6 vs. 43.8 ±9.7 mm3 in vehicle-treated group, p<0.05, Figure 6) after IVH. There was a trend of decreasing of intraventricular T2* lesion volume in DFX- compared to vehicle-treated rats from the first week, but the difference only reached significance at 4 weeks after IVH (7.8±1.9 vs. 10.1±2.4 mm3, p<0.05, Figure 6). Immunohistochemistry showed that DFX reduced ferritin positive cells in the periventricular area (103±40 vs. 168±54 cells/mm2 in vehicle-treated group, p<0.05) and hippocampus (54±16 vs. 73±10 cells/mm2 in vehicle-treated group, p<0.05). In addition, DFX reduced IVH-induced hippocampal tissue loss and CA-1 neuronal loss at 4 weeks after IVH (hippocampal volume: 89.0 ±2.7 vs. 85.2± 4.1 mm3 in the vehicle-treated group, p<0.05; CA-1 neurons: 148 ± 23 vs. 120±29 cells/mm in the vehicle-treated group, p<0.05).

Figure 6.

Figure 6

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Bar graphs showing the time course of lateral ventricular volume (A) and T2* lesion volume (B) over four weeks after IVH in rats treated with and without DFX. Hippocampal volume (C) was determined after 4 weeks. Values are expressed as the means ± SD, n=8–9, * p<0.05 vs. the vehicle-treated group.

Discussion

The major findings of current study are: 1) intraventricular injection of autologous whole blood causes iron accumulation, hydrocephalus and brain tissue loss in the hippocampus; 2) HO-1 and ferritin levels are increased significantly in the hippocampus and periventicular areas; 3) DFX, an iron chelator, reduces IVH-induced hydrocephalus and hippocampal tissue loss.

Limited studies on hydrocephalus after IVH have been preformed in adult animal models. Pang et al. established a IVH model in adult dogs by injecting 9 ml of solid autologous blood clots into the lateral ventricles 16. Long-term ventricular dilatation was achieved in an adult rat model of IVH established previously in our laboratory by intraventricular injection of 200 μl fresh autologous blood 12. However, persistent posthemorrhagic ventricular dilation was not evident in an adult pig model of IVH 17. Results from different IVH animal models suggest that multiple factors, including animal species, and volume and rate of blood injection, are essential for hydrocephalus development. Our current results indicate that intraventricular blood injection rat model is a reliable model to study hydrocephalus after IVH. Currently, no good behavioral tests are available for this IVH rat model and this is a limitation of this study. Development of behavioral tests for IVH should be a priority.

Our T2* studies found iron deposition from the first day of IVH to 4 weeks later and that iron deposition is associated with ventricular dilation. T2* MRI is clinically used as a sensitive method to detect acute hemorrhage as well as iron deposition in old hemorrhagic lesions 18, 19. Clinically, hyperacute IVH can be clearly visualized in T2* MRI, although there is little information available on subacute and long-term IVH with T2* MRI 18. Our recent study showed that T2* MRI sequences reflect brain tissue iron deposition after rat ICH 20.

The mechanisms of hydrocephalus development following IVH are still not clear. Though the relationship between iron, the degradation product of hemoglobin, in CSF and hydrocephalus is seldom studied, some clues indicate that there are connections between iron and posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus in clinical studies. Hemoglobin released from red cells reaches its peak concentration by the second day following injection of blood into the CSF21. Non-protein-bound iron was found frequently at higher levels in CSF from preterm infants with posthemorrhagic ventricular dilatation 22. In SAH patients, a high level of ferritin in CSF is an independent predictive factor for chronic hydrocephalus 8. In addition, iron and ferritin deposition are found in ependymal or subependymal location after neonatal IVH 23. Increases in CSF iron levels are present after various kinds of intracranial hemorrhage. However, to date, the relationship between iron level increases in CSF and ventricular dilatation is unknown. To our knowledge, there is only one paper reporting iron and hydrocephalus in a dog model of SAH. In 1960, Iwanowski et al 24 injected an iron-dextran complex into the subarachnoid spaces repeatedly in two dogs. The two dogs died at day 3 and day 12 after injections, and hydrocephalus was observed.

Brain non-heme iron levels were increased after IVH. Heme oxygenase-1 and ferritin levels were also increased in the periventricular area and in the hippocampus. HO-1 is an enzyme for heme degradation and ferritin is a key iron-storage protein in the brain. These findings together with iron deposition detected by T2* MRI indicate iron overload in the rat IVH model.

At present, the mechanisms associated with ventricular dilatation induced by iron are unknown. Traditional explanations for posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus mainly include: 1) arachnoid obstruction by blood components 25; 2) subarachnoid fibrosis 16; 3) proliferation and fibrosis of the arachnoid villi 16; and 4) ventricular wall injury16.

Activities of normal ependymal cilia is thought to direct CSF current toward the ventricular outlets, and absent or functionally defective ependymal cell motile cilia may be a cause of hydrocephalus in a mouse model 26. Fibrosis either in subarachnoid space or arachnoid villi has been also suggested to have a role in the development of posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus 16. Despite a lack of studies on the relationship between subarachnoid fibrosis and iron, the association between iron overload and liver tissue fibrosis is well-known 27. Iron might also contribute to the long-term hydrocephalus that is found even after clot resolution by promoting periventricular tissue destruction (as found for the hippocampus).

Deferoxamine, an iron chelator, has been shown to be neuroprotective in rat and pig models of ICH 9–11. There is a current phase I (dose finding and safety study) clinical trial of DFX in ICH patients 28. In the present study, we demonstrated that DFX can also alleviate ventricular dilatation as well as neuronal loss in hippocampus following IVH. Accordingly, DFX treatment reduced intraventricular T2* lesion volume and brain ferritin immunoreactivity. The dose of DFX used in this study is adopted from our previous ICH studies. Although DFX may work directly by chelating iron, it should be noted that DFX can also inhibit hemin-induced erythrocyte lysis 29.

In conclusion, the present study revealed persistent ventricular dilatation together with evidence of iron accumulation in an adult rat model of IVH. Our results demonstrated the role of iron in IVH-induced hydrocephalus and brain damage. DFX may be a potential therapeutic to treat IVH patients, and especially those ICH patients with ventricular extension.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by grants NS-039866, NS-052510 and NS-057539 from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and 0840016N from American Heart Association (AHA). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH and AHA.

Footnotes

Disclosures:

None.

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