Abstract
This study examines the relationships of trait-like tendencies towards authentic and hubristic pride (Tracy & Robins, 2004) with goal-regulation tendencies, affective tendencies, and impulsive traits. Undergraduates (n = 936) completed the 14-item measure of authentic and hubristic pride (Tracy & Robins, 2007b) and a battery of other self-report measures. The two types of pride correlated with distinct profiles of goal regulation tendencies, affective tendencies, and self-control. Authentic pride correlated with measures of self-control, whereas hubristic pride was related to measures of impulsivity and aggression. Overall, the differential pattern of correlations fits with a model in which authentic pride is tied to adaptive achievement and goal engagement, whereas hubristic pride is tied to extrinsic values of public recognition and social dominance.
A developing literature has begun to examine the experience of pride and to describe many ways in which such experiences shape self-regulatory functioning (Grant & Higgins, 2003; Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2009; Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2006, Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002) and interpersonal functioning (Gable, Reis, Impett, & Asher, 2004; Leary, 2007; Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995; Williams & DeSteno, 2009). Like shame, pride is termed a self-conscious emotion: an emotional reaction to the self (Izard, Ackerman, & Schultz, 1999; Tracy & Robbins, 2004, 2007a, 2007b). Thus, whereas people experience joy (a non-self-conscious emotion) when good things happen that do not reflect particularly on the self, they may experience pride (a self-conscious emotion) when they become aware that they have lived up to some ideal self-representation. As do other self-conscious emotions, pride requires self-awareness and self-evaluation (Tracy & Robins, 2004). Recent studies point a role for pride in guiding achievement (Pekrun et al, 2006) and particularly in providing motivation for goal exertion when external immediate rewards are not available (Williams & DeSteno, 2008).
Facets of Pride
Pride has been associated with a variety of positive social consequences (Gable et al., 2004; Gavin & Mason, 2004; Leary, 2007; Leary et al., 1995; Michie, 2009; Svensson, Mussener, & Alexanderson, 2006; Williams & DeSteno, 2009), but also with a various of adverse social consequences (Freud & Horney, cited in Gershman, 1947; McGregor, Nail, Marigold, & Kang, 2005). To help resolve these seemingly paradoxical effects of pride, several people have suggested the importance of distinguishing hubristic from authentic pride (Ekman, 2003; Lewis, 2000; Tangney, Wagner, & Gramzow, 1989; Tracy & Robins, 2004). Authentic pride has been characterized by words such as “accomplished” and “confident,” whereas hubristic pride has been characterized by words such as “arrogant” and “conceited.”
Tracy and Robbins (2007b) provided evidence of the semantic separability of these two sorts of pride, and of the differential associations these two sorts of pride have with aspects of personality. In their view (Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007a), authentic pride derives from specific accomplishments or goal attainments, and is often focused on the efforts made towards that goal. Hubristic pride, on the other hand, is related instead to more global beliefs about abilities and strengths, as reflected in statements such as “I do everything well” or “I am naturally talented” (Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007a). Put differently, in this view authentic pride arises from a self-evaluation of “doing,” whereas hubristic pride arises from a self-evaluation of “being” (Lewis, 2000; Tangney, Wagner, Fletcher, & Gramzow, 1992). Hubristic pride appears to be relatively defensive (McGregor et al, 2005) and neurotic in nature (Gershman, 1947; Tracy & Robins, 2004).
The study reported here extends the research on trait-like tendencies towards authentic and hubristic pride to examine their differential relationships with constructs in several domains, including goal-regulation tendencies, affective tendencies other than pride, and impulsivity-related traits and behavior. We focus here on trait pride, defined as long-term tendencies to experience pride more intensely or frequently (Tracy, Shariff, & Cheng, 2010).
Pride and Goal Regulation
Researchers have documented strong relationships between tendencies towards pride (both trait and state) and aspects of goal regulation (Cosmides & Tooby, 2000; Covington & Omelich, 1984; Gruber & Johnson, 2009; Higgins, Friedman, Harlow, Idson, Ayduk, & Taylor, 2001; LeDoux, 1996; Williams & DeSteno, 2008). Trait pride has been shown to be a robust predictor of achieving goals related to mastery (Pekrun et al., 2006, 2009; Williams & Desteno, 2008, 2009) and competence (Dweck & Leggett, 1988).
The nature of one's goals, however, appears to differ by the type of pride assessed. Tracy and her colleagues (2004, 2010) argued that authentic pride, but not hubristic pride, is linked to achievement, accomplishment, confidence, productivity, and self-worth (Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007a, 2007b). This suggests an approach to life in which intrinsic involvement guides behavior. If so, tendencies toward authentic pride should also be related to higher levels of traits such as valuing the activities that make up one's life and taking up new goals when previous goal-directed efforts prove not to be successful.
In contrast, there is indirect evidence suggesting a link between hubristic pride and the pursuit of goals so as to attain acknowledgement from others. That is, hubristic pride has been linked to a hierarchical dominance orientation, in which status depends on social validation (Cheng, Tracy, & Henrich, in press); that dominance orientation, in turn, has been related to extrinsic goal pursuit (Duriez, Vansteenkiste, Soenens, & De Witte, 2007). Given such an approach to goals, we hypothesize that hubristic pride will also relate to the tendency to set unrealistically ambitious extrinsically-motivated goals. Because goal pursuit has the purpose of obtaining others’ acknowledgement, and because self-esteem based on such considerations is fragile, we hypothesize that persons high in hubristic pride will tend to overgeneralize from both successes and failures. Success will be taken to mean “the sky is the limit,” particularly with regard to social standing; failure will be taken to mean disaster. Such a pattern would be consistent with the connection between hubristic pride and the tendency to make global attributions for success (Tracy & Robins, 2004; 2007a, 2007b).
Pride, Other Emotions, and Sensitivity to Reward and Punishment
Pride is a positively-valenced emotion. Not surprisingly, then, several researchers have documented that tendencies toward pride (both authentic and hubristic) are related to positive affect (Gruber & Johnson, 2009), and particularly to self-esteem and pleasure after achievement (Takahashi et al., 2007). It is a straightforward extrapolation to suggest that pride should be related to elevated levels of dispositional reward sensitivity. Because both aspects of pride relate to attainments (though, we believe, for different reasons), it also seems reasonable to suggest that both should relate to tendencies to expend strong effort toward goal pursuit.
Several aspects of hubristic pride would be expected to relate to tendencies towards certain kinds of negative affect. To the extent that a driving mechanism in trait-like hubristic pride is related to a need for extrinsic recognition of successes, failure should generate anger, hostility, and aggressive behavior among those prone to hubristic pride (Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2007b). Any association of hubristic pride with tendencies to set unrealistically high goals (as suggested earlier) would exacerbate such negative mood states. Indeed, recent findings indicate that hubristic pride relates to higher levels of aggression, whereas authentic pride relates to lower levels of aggression (Cheng, Tracy, & Henrich, in press; Tracy, Cheng, Robins, & Trzesniewski, 2009).
Pride and Self-Control
Authentic pride, as a core self-conscious emotion (Heckhausen, 1987), is believed to motivate people to persevere in the absence of extrinsic incentives (Williams & DeSteno, 2008) and to foster the pursuit of altruistic (Cheng, Tracy, & Henrich, in press) and valued goal-relevant behavior. As such, the pursuit of core authentic goals should also promote self-control (Silvia & O'Brien, 2004). Consistent with this idea, authentic pride has been found to correlate with high levels of conscientiousness, whereas hubristic pride has been found to relate to low levels of conscientiousness, as well as to higher levels of antisocial behavior (Cheng, Tracy, & Henrich, in press ; Tracy & Robins, 2007c).
In the study reported here we tested more broadly idea that authentic pride would relate both to conscientiousness and to related constructs. Scales were included that assess general self-control, attentional control, the sense of urgency that can arise in response to both positive and negative emotions, and behavioral perseverance. We also included a measure of alcohol use, given that alcohol use is often viewed as an indicator of poor self-control (Werch & Gorman, 1988; Young & Pihl, 1980).
Summary
Trait-like tendencies towards hubristic and authentic pride have been differentiated, and these two facets of pride have been found to relate differently to such variables as self-esteem, narcissism, aggression, and social functioning. Here we expand upon these findings to consider how the two facets of pride will relate to a broader set of trait tendencies. As outlined in the preceding paragraphs, we focus on several aspects of goal regulation, tendencies to experience negative affect and positive affects other than pride, sensitivity to incentives and threat, and self-control versus impulsivity. We hypothesize that authentic and hubristic pride will both relate to greater positive affectivity and higher levels of behavioral approach tendencies. Hubristic pride, but not authentic pride, is expected to relate to setting unrealistic extrinsic ambitions, reacting unrealistically to small successes, and displaying anger and negative affect in the context of failures. Authentic pride is expected to be related to greater self-control, whereas hubristic pride is expected to be related to diminished self-control.
Method
Undergraduates at the University of Miami (N = 936, 42% male), completed questionnaires in group sessions. The sample came from a pool that ranged from 18-21, was approximately 55% non-Hispanic White, 23% Hispanic, 8% Asian, 6% African American, and 7% other. Because participants did not all complete all measures, Ns vary.
Measures
Pride
The Authentic and Hubristic Pride scales (Tracy & Robins, 2007b) comprise adjectives and phrases reflecting authentic pride (7 items, e.g., “like I am achieving,” “fulfilled,” “productive”) and reflecting hubristic pride (7 items, “arrogant,” “conceited,” “pompous,” “smug”). Respondents indicate the extent to which each item represents them, on a five-point scale. Both scales had high internal consistency in this sample, alphas = .89 for authentic and .85 for hubristic. The two scales were unrelated, r (934) = .06.
BAS/BIS
The BAS/BIS scales (Carver & White, 1994) assess sensitivity of approach and avoidance systems. Three empirically derived BAS scales reflect reactions to incentives. Drive reflects effort (4 items, e.g., “When I want something, I usually go all-out to get it”). Reward responsiveness reflects positive responses to goal attainment (5 items, e.g., “When I get something I want, I feel excited and energized”). Fun seeking captures vigilance for new incentives (4 items, e.g., “I crave excitement and new sensations.”). BIS assesses the tendency to respond to threat with anxiety (7 items, e.g., “If I think something unpleasant is going to happen I usually get pretty „worked up.”). Respondents indicated the extent to which items represent them on a four-point scale. (Alphas for these and the remaining measures are in Table 1.)
Table 1.
Scale | Alpha (N) | Correlation with Authentic Pride | Correlation with Hubristic Pride | t for Difference in Correlations |
---|---|---|---|---|
Measures Reflecting Incentive and Threat Sensitivity | ||||
BAS Reward Responsiveness | .71 (805) | .21*** | .02 | 4.06*** |
BAS Drive | .76 (804) | .27*** | .21*** | 1.40 |
BAS Fun Seeking | .71 (805) | .08* | .14*** | -1.25 |
BIS Threat Sensitivity | .77 (805) | -.15*** | -.14*** | -0.19 |
Measures of Affect Intensity | ||||
AIM Positive | .68 (804) | .25*** | .05 | 4.24*** |
AIM Negative | .76 (805) | -.10** | -.08* | -0.33 |
Measures of Goal Engagement | ||||
Life Engagement Test | .85 (149) | .51*** | -.12 | 6.35*** |
Goal Disengagement | .77 (149) | -.09 | .08 | -1.49 |
Goal Re-engagement | .89 (149) | .32*** | -.14 | 4.33*** |
Measures of Extrinsic Goal Setting | ||||
WASSUP Popular Fame | .89 (935) | .12*** | .23*** | -2.72* |
WASSUP Financial success | .78 (936) | .12** | .23*** | -2.53* |
Measures of Positive and Negative Generalization: Responses to Success and Failure | ||||
Positive Generalization: Social | .82 (656) | .12** | .37*** | -4.84*** |
Positive Generalization: Lateral | .82 (657) | .24*** | .16*** | 1.50 |
Positive Generalization: Upward | .82 (656) | .14*** | .30*** | -3.05** |
Negative generalization | .82 (805) | -.37*** | .04 | -10.07*** |
Measures Reflecting Hostility, Anger, and Aggression | ||||
AQ Hostility | .66 (801) | -.27*** | .08* | -7.41*** |
AQ Anger | .67 (805) | -.12** | .28*** | -8.67*** |
AQ Verbal Aggression | .75 (803) | -.06 | .30*** | -7.65*** |
AQ Physical Aggression | .75 (805) | -.06 | .28*** | -7.30*** |
BFI-Agreeableness | .80 (149) | .19* | -.35*** | 5.16*** |
Measures Reflecting Self-Control and Impulsivity | ||||
BFI-Conscientiousness | .83 (935) | .48*** | -.19*** | 17.40*** |
Self Control Scale | .83 (935) | .31*** | -.24*** | 13.29*** |
Attention Control Scale | .79 (936) | .24*** | -.11** | 8.10*** |
UPPS Perseverance | .84 (934) | .41*** | -.18*** | 14.41*** |
UPPS Urgency | .90 (666) | -.24*** | .20*** | -8.73*** |
Positive Urgency Measure | .85 (935) | -.16*** | .29*** | -10.78*** |
AUDIT | .85 (936) | -.10** | .20*** | -6.90*** |
Note.
p < .05
p < .01
p < .001
AIM = Affect Intensity Measurement; BAS = Behavioral Approach System; BIS = Behavioral Inhibition System; WASSUP = Willingly Approached Set of Statistically Unlikely Pursuits; GDGRS = Goal Disengagement and Goal Reengagement; POG = Positive Overgeneralization; AQ = Aggression Questionnaire; BFI = Big Five Inventory; SCS = The Brief Self-Control Scale; ACS = Attention Control Scale; UPPS = Urgency Premeditation-Perseverance-Sensation Seeking; PUM = Positive Urgency Measure; AUDIT = Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test
The Life Engagement Test (LET)
The LET (Scheier et al., 2006) assesses the sense of purpose in life: the extent to which a person's life includes valued activities (6 items, e.g., “I value my activities a lot”). This measure has been shown to have adequate psychometric properties (see Scheier et al., 2006). Respondents indicated their agreement on a five-point scale. This measure was administered (at a second session) to a subsample of 149.
Goal Adjustment Scale (GAS)
Responses to lost goals were measured by the GAS (Wrosch, Scheier, Miller, Schulz, & Carver, 2003). It has two subscales: Goal disengagement (6 items, e.g., “It's easy for me to stop thinking about the goal and let it go”), and Goal reengagement (4 items, e.g., “I seek other meaningful goals”). Goal disengagement from unattainable goals has been shown to be associated with lower levels of self-reported health problems, depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and more normative diurnal cortisol secretion (Wrosch, Miller, Scheier, & Brun de Pontet, 2007). Goal re-engagement has been shown to be related to well-being (Neely, Schallert, Mohammed, Roberts, & Chen, 2009). Responses were made on a 5-point scale. This measure also went only to the subsample of 149.
Affective Intensity Measure (AIM)
The AIM (Larsen, & Diener, 1987) assesses the intensity with which a person experiences emotions in daily life. We used an abbreviated form (Fulford, Johnson, & Carver, 2008); items addressed positive feelings (5 items, e.g., “When something good happens, I am usually much more jubilant than others”) or negative feelings (7 items, e.g., “When I feel guilt, this emotion is quite strong”). Responses used a five-point scale. Positive items correlated only .26 with negative items (Fulford et al., 2008) and were analyzed separately.
Willingly Approached Set of Statistically Unlikely Pursuits (WASSUP)
The WASSUP (Johnson & Carver, 2006; Johnson, Eisner, & Carver, 2009) assesses the tendency to set implausibly high goals. We used only the subscales of Popular fame (7items, e.g., “You will be famous”) and Financial success (4 items, e.g. “You will run a Fortune 500 company”). Participants were asked to rate the probability that they would set each goal for themselves on a four-point scale.
Positive Overgeneralization (POG)
The POG (Eisner, Johnson, & Carver, 2008) measures three tendencies to overgeneralize from success: Social generalization (5 items, e.g., “When an attractive person smiles at me, I can tell it means s/he is hot for me”), Lateral generalization (6 items, e.g., “When I succeed at something, it makes me think about successes in other areas of my life,”), and Upward generalization (5 items, e.g., “If someone praises the way I express something, it makes me think of writing a book,”). Agreement with each statement was rated on a four-point scale.
Negative generalization
Negative generalization (4 items, e.g., “If I notice one fault of mine, it makes me think about my other faults”) is one scale of a larger measure intended to assess dysfunctional self-regulatory cognitive tendencies. Negative generalization is related both to depression and to depression vulnerability (Carver, La Voie, Kuhl, & Ganellen, 1988). Respondents indicated agreement on a four-point scale.
Aggression Questionnaire Short Form (AQ-SF)
The AQ (Buss & Perry, 1992) measures trait aggression and anger. Bryant and Smith (2001) shortened it, reducing overlap among four subscales: Anger (3items, e.g., “I have trouble controlling my temper”), Hostility (3 items, e.g., “I wonder why I am so bitter about things”), Verbal Aggression (3 items, e.g., “I often find myself disagreeing with people”), and Physical Aggression (3 items, e.g., “I have threatened people I know”). The AQ-SF subscales have been found to correlate well with vignette measures of Anger, Hostility, Verbal Aggression, Physical Aggression, and with measures of emotional instability and alcohol consumption (Tremblay & Ewart, 2005). Ratings were made on a five-point scale. As noted earlier, the two aspects of pride have previously been found to correlate in opposite directions with aggression (Tracy et al., 2009).
Conscientiousness and Agreeableness
The Big-Five Inventory (BFI, John & Srivastava, 1999) measures the big-five personality traits. The Conscientiousness scale (19 items, e.g., “I see myself as someone who does a thorough job”) was completed by the full sample; the subsample of 149 also completed the Agreeableness scale (16 items, e.g., “I see myself as someone who is generally trusting”). Previous studies have linked Conscientiousness to goal-setting (Barrick, & Strauss, 1993), and goal-orientation (Colquitt & Simmering, 1998). These scales have both previously been found to correlate with authentic pride (Tracy & Robins, 2007).
The Self-Control Scale (SCS)
The SCS (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004) assesses self-control (e.g., “I am good at resisting temptation”). A brief SCS (13 items), strongly associated with the full SCS (rs =.93 and .92; Tangney et al, 2004), was used here. Respondents rated their agreement on a 5-point scale.
The Attention Control Scale (ACS)
The ACS (Derryberry & Reed, 2002) measures voluntary attentional control (e.g., “When I need to concentrate and solve a problem, I have trouble focusing my attention”). We used the brief version (12 items) reported by Ayduk, Zayas, Downey, Colec, Shoda, and Mischel (2008). The brief ACS has been correlated with measures of borderline personality and rejection sensitivity (Ayduk et al, 2008). Respondents rated their agreement with each item on a 5-point scale.
Urgency-Premeditation-Perseverance-Sensation Seeking (UPPS)
The UPPS (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001) is an inventory of impulsive tendencies that has four scales. Two of them were used here: Urgency (12 items, e.g., “I have trouble controlling my impulses”) and Perseverance (10 items, e.g., “Once I start a project, I almost always finish it”). Respondents rated their agreement with the items on a 5-point scale.
Positive Urgency Measure (PUM)
The PUM (Cyders et al., 2007) is a 14-item scale that assesses the tendency to respond recklessly to positive mood states (e.g., “When I am really excited, I tend not to think of the consequences of my actions”). For this study we selected the 7 best-loading items. Respondents rated their agreement on a 5-point scale.
Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)
The AUDIT (Saunders, Aasland, Babor, De La Fuente, & Grant, 1993) is a 10-item scale that screens for alcohol consumption and drinking problems (e.g., “Have you or someone else been injured as a result of your drinking?”). The AUDIT is widely used and is correlated with diagnoses of alcohol abuse and dependence (Allen, Reinert, & Volk, 2001). Each item has a separate set of responses.
Results
Correlations between pride scales and the other measures are in Table 1. To test whether any apparent differences between pairs of correlations involving the two types of pride were significant, comparisons between pairs of correlations for authentic and hubristic pride were made using the method of Cohen and Cohen (1983) for nonindependent correlations. Table 1 reveals both similarities and differences between authentic and hubristic pride.1
With respect to measures relating to incentive motivation and positive feelings, there were clear differences in how the pride scales correlated with several measures. Only authentic pride related to Positive Affect Intensity, and only authentic pride related to Reward Responsiveness (energized pleasure in attaining goals). The two kinds of pride did not differ in their relations to other aspects of incentive or threat sensitivity, with both relating positively to Drive and Fun Seeking. Only Authentic Pride related to Life Engagement (the sense of purpose in life) and Goal Reengagement (the tendency to take on a new goal after a loss).
Hubristic Pride related more strongly than did Authentic Pride to aspirations for popular fame and financial success, though both related to such aspirations. Hubristic pride also had stronger associations with two aspects of positive generalization: Social Generalization and Upward Generalization. Interestingly, these latter two scales also imply strong upward goal adjustment after success experiences. Authentic pride related inversely to Negative Generalization; hubristic pride was unrelated to it.
As in previous studies (Tracy et al., 2009) there were sharp difference in associations with measures of anger, hostility, and aggression. Hubristic pride related positively to all of those tendencies. Authentic pride was inversely related to scales measuring anger and hostility, and was unrelated to aggression. Authentic pride related positively to Agreeableness (which in some ways is the reverse of aggressiveness); hubristic pride related inversely to Agreeableness.
Despite the considerable diversity among the measures of self-control and inhibition of impulses, they correlated an average of .46 with one another; their correlations with the two prides consistently diverged. Authentic pride related positively to Conscientiousness, Self-Control, and Attention Control, and inversely to emotional impulsiveness. Hubristic pride also related significantly to the same measures, but in each case in the opposite direction. Finally, hubristic pride related positively to the measure of alcohol use, whereas authentic pride related inversely to it.
Discussion
The pattern of associations obtained in this study replicates and extends previous research on the importance of differentiating hubristic pride from authentic pride. Our findings suggest that these two tendencies have very different associations with a broad range of measures of affectivity, reward sensitivity, anger and aggression, goal regulation, and self-control. Indeed, the correlations of the two forms of pride with these various constructs differed substantially. Findings suggest that hubristic pride and authentic pride may be driven by very different motivations and may have fundamentally different implications for goal regulation and interpersonal functioning.
We should note some of the limitations in this study. Most importantly, it used a cross-sectional design which precludes examination of causal patterns among the variables. Further, the reliance on self-report measures may have artificially inflated the overlap among constructs. Additional research, using laboratory-based measures of emotion, and goal regulation are warranted, as are longitudinal studies.
Differing Life Experiences
Despite these limitations, our findings paint a picture of authentic pride as reflecting both sensitivity to the occurrence of rewards and the experience of positive affects more generally. People who experience authentic pride appear to enjoy life. Authentic pride was also related to measures of a sense of purpose in life, and to the tendency to respond to losses in life by moving on to new goals. All of these are adaptive and positive characteristics.
In sharp contrast to this pattern for authentic pride, none of these tendencies characterized hubristic pride. Instead, hubristic pride appears reflective of desires for extrinsic goals that lead to public recognition or even adoration (popular fame and financial success). Consistent with that, hubris is also reflected in upward generalization (generalizing from one success to higher aspirations in the same domain) and especially social generalization (generalizing from a social success to the broader domain of social influence).
Perhaps tellingly, there was one sort of generalization that related more to authentic pride than to hubristic pride. This was lateral generalization: generalization to other domains of one's life. This pattern suggests that authentic pride is associated with a sense of self in which multiple areas of engagement in life are valued.
The pattern for hubristic pride is consistent with a focus on continual striving for a higher place in the hierarchy, a struggle that may not involve anxiety but also does not seem to result in much pleasure. According to one evolutionary view (Tracy et al., 2010), hubristic pride reflects dominance strategies (Cheng, Tracy, & Henrich, in press), which involve attempts to procure resources, with less emphasis on interpersonal connectivity. This view is also consistent with the associations between hubristic pride and measures of aggression and disagreeableness.
The differential pattern for the two types of pride regarding negative emotional experience appears, however, to be specific to this class of emotions (disagreeableness and aggressiveness). That is, both types of pride related inversely to anxiety proneness (BIS) and to the AIM index of negative emotions (the item content of which addressed mostly anxiety, guilt, and empathy with others’ distress).
A final important difference between the two types of pride pertains to their relationships with the property of self-control. On a succession of six measures that all have overtones of impulsiveness versus self-control, plus a measure of difficulties with alcohol (also taken as an indicator of low self-control), hubris was related to higher levels of impulsiveness and lack of restraint. In contrast, authentic pride was related to greater self-control on all measures.
Implications
Authentic pride appears to characterize adaptive goal regulation. It may important to the management of certain kinds of pro-social behaviors: “attainment of prestige, a high status that is granted on the basis of demonstrated knowledge, skills, and altruism (i.e., respect-based status)” (Cheng, Tracy, & Henrich, in press; Tracy et al, 2010). A deeper understanding of hubristic pride may provide insight into power and status seeking behaviors that occur without consideration of interpersonal costs. Hubristic pride is also related to a web of clinically-relevant issues involving impulsivity, aggression, and potential alcohol use problems. Studying the maladaptive tendencies of hubristic pride may help elucidate problems related to social dominance such as narcissism (Cheng, Tracy, & Henrich, in press; Weisfeld &Wendorf, 2000), antisocial personality disorder, and psychopathy. These findings join with previous ones in highlighting the importance of attending to different facets of pride. Although pride might intuitively be considered a positive emotion, convergent findings suggest the importance of a more nuanced conceptualization of the positive and negative aspects of pride.
Footnotes
Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Men reported significantly higher levels of hubristic pride than women, p < .01; controlling for sex did not change the results appreciably.
Contributor Information
Charles S. Carver, Sungchoon Sinclair University of Miami, Coral Gables
Sheri L. Johnson, University of California, Berkeley
References
- Allen JP, Reinert DF, Volk R. The alcohol use disorders identification tests: An aid to recognition of alcohol problems in primary care patients. Preventive Medicine. 2001;33:428–433. doi: 10.1006/pmed.2001.0910. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ayduk Ö, Zayas V, Downey G, Colec AB, Shoda Y, Mischel W. Rejection sensitivity and executive control: Joint predictors of borderline personality features. Journal of Research in Personality. 2008;42:151–168. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.04.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Barrick MR, Strauss JP. Conscientiousness and performance of sales representatives-test of the mediating effects of goal-setting. Journal of Applied Psychology. 1993;78:715–722. [Google Scholar]
- Bryant FB, Smith BD. Refining the architecture of aggression: A measurement model for the Buss–Perry aggression questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality. 2001;35:138–167. [Google Scholar]
- Buss AH, Perry M. The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1992;63:452–459. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.63.3.452. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Carver CS, La Voie L, Kuhl J, Ganellen RJ. Cognitive concomitants of depression: A further examination of the roles of generalization, high standards, and self-criticism. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 1988;7:350–365. [Google Scholar]
- Carver CS, White TL. Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1994;67:319–333. [Google Scholar]
- Cheng JT, Tracy JL, Henrich J. Pride, personality, and the evolutionary foundations of human social status. Evolution and Human Behavior. in press. [Google Scholar]
- Cohen J, Cohen P. Multiple regression/correlation for the behavioral sciences. 3rd ed. Erbaum; Mahwah, NJ: 1983. [Google Scholar]
- Colquitt JA, Simmering MJ. Conscientiousness, goal orientation, and motivation to learn during the learning process: A longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Psychology. 1998;83:654–665. [Google Scholar]
- Cosmides L, Tooby J. Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. In: Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM, editors. Handbook of emotions. 2nd ed Guilford Press; New York: 2000. pp. 91–115. [Google Scholar]
- Covington MV, Omelich CL. Controversies or consistencies? A reply to Brown and Weiner. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1984;76:159–168. [Google Scholar]
- Cyders MA, Smith GT, Spillane NS, Fischer S, Annus AM, Peterson C. Integration of impulsivity and positive mood to predict risky behavior: Development and validation of a measure of positive urgency. Psychological Assessment. 2007;19:107–118. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.19.1.107. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Derryberry D, Reed M. Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2002;111:225–236. doi: 10.1037//0021-843x.111.2.225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Duriez B, Vansteenkiste M, Soenens B, De Witte H. The social costs of extrinsic relative to intrinsic goal pursuits: Their relation with social dominance and racial and ethnic prejudice. Journal of Personality. 2007;75:757–782. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00456.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dweck CS, Leggett EL. A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review. 1988;95:256–273. [Google Scholar]
- Eisner LR, Johnson SL, Carver CS. Cognitive responses to failure and success relate uniquely to bipolar depression versus mania. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2008;117:154–163. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.117.1.154. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ekman P. In Emotions revealed. Times Books; New York: 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Fulford D, Johnson SL, Carver CS. Commonalities and differences in characteristics of persons at risk for narcissism and mania. Journal of Research in Personality. 2008;42:1427–1438. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gable SL, Reis HT, Impett EA, Asher ER. What do you do when things go right? The intrapersonal and interpersonal benefits of sharing positive events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2004;87:228–245. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.228. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gavin JH, Mason RO. The virtuous organization: The value of happiness in the workplace. Organizational Dynamics. 2004;33:379–392. [Google Scholar]
- Gershman H. Neurotic pride and self-hatred according to Freud and Horney. American Journal of Psychoanalysis. 1947;7:53–55. doi: 10.1007/BF01871704. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Grant H, Higgins ET. Optimism, promotion pride, and prevention pride as predictors of quality of life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2003;29:1521–1532. doi: 10.1177/0146167203256919. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gruber J, Johnson SL. Positive emotional traits and ambitious goals among people at risk for mania: The need for specificity. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy. 2009;2:179–190. doi: 10.1521/ijct.2009.2.2.176. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Heckhausen H. Emotional components of action: Their ontogeny as reflected in achievement behavior. In: Glitz D, Wohlwill JF, editors. Curiosity, Imagination and Play: On the Development of Spontaneous Cognitive and Motivational Processes. Erlbaum; Hillsdale, NJ: 1987. pp. 326–348. [Google Scholar]
- Higgins ET, Friedman RS, Harlow RE, Idson LC, Ayduk ON, Taylor A. Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success: Promotion pride versus prevention pride. European Journal of Social Psychology. 2001;31:3–23. [Google Scholar]
- Izard CE, Ackerman BP, Schultz D. Independent emotions and consciousness: Self-consciousness and dependent emotions. In: Singer JA, Singer P, editors. At play in the fields of consciousness: Essays in honor of Jerome L. Singer. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.; Mahwah, NJ: 1999. pp. 83–102. [Google Scholar]
- John OP, Srivastava S. The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In: Pervin LA, John OP, editors. Handbook of personality: Theory and research. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; New York: 1999. pp. 102–138. [Google Scholar]
- Johnson SL, Carver CS. Extreme goal setting and vulnerability to mania among undiagnosed young adults. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 2006;30:377–395. doi: 10.1007/s10608-006-9044-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Johnson SL, Eisner LR, Carver CS. Elevated expectancies among persons diagnosed with bipolar disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2009;48:217–222. doi: 10.1348/014466509X414655. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Leary MR. Motivational and emotional aspects of the self. Annual Review of Psychology. 2007;58:317–344. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Leary MR, Tambor ES, Terdal SK, Downs DL. Self-Esteem as an interpersonal monitor - the sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1995;68:518–530. [Google Scholar]
- Larsen RJ, Diener E. Affect intensity as an individual difference characteristic: A review. Journal of Research in Personality. 1987;21:1–39. [Google Scholar]
- LeDoux JE. The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. Simon & Schuster; New York: 1996. [Google Scholar]
- Lewis M. Self-conscious emotions: Embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt. In: Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM, editors. Handbook of emotions. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; New York: 2000. pp. 623–636. [Google Scholar]
- McGregor I, Nail PR, Marigold DC, Kang S. Defensive pride and consensus: Strength in imaginary numbers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2005;89:978–996. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.978. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Michie S. Pride and gratitude: How positive emotions influence the prosocial behaviors of organizational leaders. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies. 2009;15:393–403. [Google Scholar]
- Neely ME, Schallert DL, Mohammed SS, Roberts RM, Chen Y. Self-kindness when facing stress: The role of self-compassion, goal regulation, and support in college students’ well-being. Motivation Emotion. 2009;33:88–97. [Google Scholar]
- Pekrun R, Elliot AJ, Maier MA. Achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: A theoretical model and prospective test. Journal of Educational Psychology. 2006;98:583–597. [Google Scholar]
- Pekrun R, Elliot AJ, Maier MA. Achievement goals and achievement emotions: Testing a model of their joint relations with academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology. 2009;101:115–135. [Google Scholar]
- Pekrun R, Goetz T, Titz W, Perry RP. Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist. 2002;37:91–105. [Google Scholar]
- Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF, De La Fuente JR, Grant M. Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption II. Addiction. 1993;88:791–804. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02093.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Scheier MF, Wrosch C, Baum A, Cohen S, Martire LM, Matthews KA, Schulz R, Zdaniuk B. The life engagement test: Assessing purpose in life. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2006;29:291–298. doi: 10.1007/s10865-005-9044-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Silvia PJ, O'Brien ME. Self-awareness and constructive functioning: Revisiting “the human dilemma”. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 2004;23:475–489. [Google Scholar]
- Svensson T, Müssener U, Alexanderson K. Pride, empowerment, and return to work: on the significance of promoting positive social emotions among sickness absentees. Work. 2006;27:57–65. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Takahashi H, Matsuura M, Koeda M, Yahata N, Suhara T, Kato M, Okubo Y. Brain activations during judgements of positive self-conscious emotion and positive basic emotion: Pride and joy. Cerebral Cortex. 2007;18:898–903. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhm120. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tangney JP, Baumeister RF, Boone AL. High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality. 2004;72:271–322. doi: 10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tangney JP, Wagner PE, Fletcher C, Gramzow R. Shamed into anger? The relation of shame and guilt to anger and self-reported aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1992;62:669–675. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.62.4.669. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tangney JP, Wagner P, Gramzow R. In The Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA) George Mason University; Fairfax, VA: 1989. [Google Scholar]
- Tracy JL, Cheng J, Robins RW, Trzesniewski K. Authentic and hubristic pride: The affective core of self-esteem and narcissism. Self and Identity. 2009;8:196–213. [Google Scholar]
- Tracy JL, Robins RW. Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: A theoretical model. Psychological Inquiry. 2004;15:103–125. [Google Scholar]
- Tracy JL, Robins RW. Emerging insights into the nature and function of pride. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2007a;16:147–150. [Google Scholar]
- Tracy JL, Robins RW. The psychological structure of pride: A tale of two facets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2007b;92:506–525. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.3.506. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tracy JL, Robins RW. The nature of pride. In: Tracy JL, Robins RW, Tangney JP, editors. The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research. Guilford; New York: 2007c. [Google Scholar]
- Tracy JL, Shariff AF, Cheng JT. A naturalist's view of pride. Emotion Review. 2010;2:163–177. [Google Scholar]
- Tremblay PF, Ewart LA. The Buss and Perry aggression questionnaire and its relations to values, the Big Five, provoking hypothetical situations, alcohol consumption patterns, and alcohol expectancies. Personality and Individual Differences. 2005;38:337–346. [Google Scholar]
- Weisfeld GE, Wendorf CA. The involuntary defeat strategy and discrete emotions theory. In: Sloman L, Gilbert P, editors. Subordination and defeat: An evolutionary approach to mood disorders and their therapy. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; Mahwah, NJ: 2000. pp. 181–198. [Google Scholar]
- Werch CE, Gorman DR. Relationship between self-control and alcohol consumption patterns and problems of college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 1988;49:30–37. doi: 10.15288/jsa.1988.49.30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Whiteside SP, Lynam DR. The five factor model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences. 2001;30:669–689. [Google Scholar]
- Williams LA, DeSteno D. Pride and perseverance: The motivational function of pride. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2008;94:1007–1017. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Williams LA, DeSteno D. Pride: Adaptive social emotion or seventh sin? Psychological Science. 2009;20:284–288. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02292.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wills TA, Murry VM, Brody GH, Gibbons FX, Gerrard M, Walker C, et al. Ethnic pride and self-control related to protective and risk factors: Test of the theoretical model for the strong African American families program. Health Psychology. 2007;26:50–59. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.26.1.50. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wrosch C, Miller GE, Scheier MF, Brun de Pontet S. Giving up on unattainable goals: Benefits for health? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2007;33:251–265. doi: 10.1177/0146167206294905. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wrosch C, Scheier MF, Miller GE, Schulz R, Carver CS. Adaptive self-regulation of unattainable goals: Goal disengagement, goal reengagement, and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2003;29:1494–1508. doi: 10.1177/0146167203256921. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Young JA, Pihl RO. Self-control of the effects of alcohol intoxication. Addictive Behaviors. 1980;41:567–571. doi: 10.15288/jsa.1980.41.567. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yu M, Stiffman AR. Culture and environment as predictors of alcohol abuse/dependence symptoms in American Indian youths. Addictive Behaviors. 2007;32:2253–2259. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.008. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]