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Published in final edited form as: J Ethnopharmacol. 2011 May 6;137(1):121–140. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.071

Toxicity of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine in Northern Peru

RW Bussmann 1,*, G Malca 2, A Glenn 1, D Sharon 1, B Nilsen 3, B Parris 4, D Dubose 3, D Ruiz 3, J Saleda 3, M Martinez 3, L Carillo 3, K Walker 1, A Kuhlman 1, A Townesmith 1
PMCID: PMC3159793  NIHMSID: NIHMS294638  PMID: 21575699

Abstract

graphic file with name nihms-294638-f0001.jpg

Aim

The plant species reported here are traditionally used in Northern Peru for a wide range of illnesses. Most remedies are prepared as ethanol or aqueous extracts and then ingested. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential toxicity of these extracts.

Materials and methods

The toxicity of ethanolic and water extracts of 341 plant species was determined using a Brine-Shrimp assay.

Results

Overall 24% of the species in water extract and 76% of the species in alcoholic extract showed elevated toxicity levels to brine-shrimp. Although in most cases multiple extracts of the same species showed very similar toxicity values, in some cases the toxicity of different extracts of the same species varied from non-toxic to highly toxic.

Conclusions

Traditional preparation methods take different toxicity levels in aqueous and ethanol extracts into account when choosing the appropriate solvent for the preparation of a remedy.

Keywords: Medicinal Plants, Ethnobotany, Brine Shrimp, Artemia salina, Toxicity, Northern Peru

1. Introduction

In many developing countries, Traditional Medicine (TM) is commonly used as it is an accessible and affordable treatment (WHO, 1999a,b; 2002), while Complementary Alternative Medicine (CAM) is popular in developed countries (WHO, 1998; UNCCD 2000).

Peru is a prime example for a developing country rich in biodiversity, with a millennia old tradition of curers using the rich flora. Many of same plants are still being used nowadays. Northern Peru is believed to be the center of the Central Andean Health Axis (Camino, 1992), and TM practices in the whole Andean region are part of everyday life (Bussmann and Sharon, 2006; De Feo, 1992; Joralemon and Sharon, 1993; Polia, 1988; Revene et al., 2008). Peru's Social Security System recently implemented a National Program in Complementary Medicine in clinics and hospitals (EsSalud, 2000). The efficacy and potential toxicity of remedies employed in folk medicine do however have to be scientifically evaluated (Baker et al., 1995; Cox and Balick, 1994; Elisabetsky and Castilhos, 1990; Farnsworth et al., 1985; Muñoz and Sauvain, 2002).

A wide variety of studies have reported that some are bioactive (e.g. Perumal Samy and Ignacimuthu, 2000), but potentially active compounds have been isolated only from a few of the plants tested (D'Agostino et al., 1995a,b; Okuyama et al., 1994; Rodriguez et al. 1994; Umana and Castro, 1990). In contrast, crude medicinal activities have been investigated for a wide variety of plants (e.g. Bussmann et al., 2008, 2009a,b, 2010; Hammond et al., 1998, Lee at al., 1999; Neto et al., 2002; Villegas et al., 1997). But while toxicity assays are available for many countries (e.g. Argentina (Bustos et al., 1996; Hernández et al., 2000), Bahrain (Taha and Alsayed, 2000), Bangladesh (Costa-Lotufo et al., 2005), Brazil (Hammer and Johns, 1993; Alves et al., 2000; Holetz et al., 2002; Santos Piemanta et al., 2003; Quignard et al., 2004; Ferreira de Lima et al., 2006; Suffredini et al., 2006; dos Santos et al., 2007), Canada (McCuthcheon, 1992), Chile (Cuadra et al., 2005), China (Duffy and Power, 2001), Cuba (Martinez et al., 1996; Logarto Parra et al., 2001), Ecuador (Guerrero et al., 2003), Guatemala (Cáceres et al., 1993a, b, 1998; Michel et al., 2007), Honduras (Lenz et al., 1998), India (Padmaja et al., 2002), Kenya (Kirira et al. 2006; Wanyoike et al., 2004), Mexico (Sánchez-Medina et al., 2001), Nicaragua (Coe et al. 2010), Nigeria (Ajaiyeoba et al., 2006), Panama (Sánchez et al., 1993), Papua New Guinea (Nick et al., 1995), Philippines (Horgen et al., 2001), Uruguay (González et al., 1993), USA (Turker and Camper, 2002; Badisa et al., 2007; Van Slambrouck et al., 2007), no data exists on the potential toxicity of Peruvian medicinal species.

In this communication we report on brine-shrimp toxicity assays for 341 plant species ingested for a wide range of traditional uses. The brine shrimp, Artemia sp., Artemiidae, are small invertebrates occurring in sea-water and other saline ecosystems. Artemia is frequently used as agent in laboratory assays to determine toxicity values by estimating LC50 values (median lethal concentration) (Meyer et al., 1982; McLaughlin et al., 1991; Cepleanu et al., 1994, Coe et al., 2010).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material

Plants for the presented assays were collected in Northern Peru (Fig. 1) in the field, in markets, and at the homes of traditional healers (curanderos) during March–April and June–August 2009, and January–February 2010. The specimens are registered under the collection series “JP”, “ACR,” “KMM,” and AKT”. Vouchers of all specimens were deposited at the Herbarium Truxillense (HUT, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo), and Herbario Antenor Orrego (HAO, Universidad Privada Antenor Orrego, Trujillo). In recognition of Peru's rights under the Convention on Biological Diversity, most notably with regard to the conservation of genetic resources in the framework of a study treating medicinal plants, the identification of the plant material was conducted entirely in Peru. No plant material was exported in any form whatsoever.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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Location of the study area in northern Peru.

Study area: Peruvian Departments of Amazonas, Piura, Lambayeque, La Libertad, Cajamarca, San Martin, and the Ecuadorian Province of Loja.

2.2. Nomenclature

The nomenclature of plant families, genera, and species follows the Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru (Brako and Zarucchi, 1993) and the Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Ecuador (Jørgensen and León-Yanez, 1999). The nomenclature was compared to the TROPICOS database (Tropicos, 2010). Species were identified using the available volumes of the Flora of Peru (McBride, 1936–1981), as well as Jørgensen and Ulloa Ulloa (1994), Pestalozzi (1998) and Ulloa Ulloa and Jørgensen (1993), and the available volumes of the Flora of Ecuador (Sparre and Harling, 1978–2010), and reference material in the herbaria HUT and HAO.

2.3. Preparation of Extracts

For each species tested, above ground material (in case of trees leaves and) was collected, and the entire material used for extract preparation. This corroborates with the traditional preparation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006). Plant material was dried at 35 °C for three days. After drying, the material was ground with an industrial grinder, and 2 samples of 5 g. of plant material each were weighted out. One sample was submerged in 100 ml of 96 % ethanol and left to macerate for 7 days, while another sample was submerged in 100 ml of boiling distilled water and left to macerate for 24 h. After maceration the plant material was filtered and 100 ml 96 % ethanol was added to the water extracts to allow faster solvent removal. The solvent was then evaporated to complete dryness using a standard Buchi rotary-evaporator. The resulting dry extracts were re-suspended in 5 ml distilled water. In order to determine the real concentration of each extract, 1ml of previous homogenization of the respective extracts was removed and again completely oven-dried and then weighed to determine amount of extract per ml of final solution. The remaining extract was used for MIC assays.

2.4. Brine shrimp hatching

Eggs of brine shrimp (Artemia sp., Artemiidae) were purchased from Carolina Biological Supply (Burlington, NC, USA) and were incubated for 48 h in a culture vessel (15 × 15 × 15 cm) containing saltwater (1% NaCl) prepared from nitrate, phosphate, and silicate-free sea-salt and distilled water (35 g/l) at 25°C under constant illumination. The saltwater solution was aerated continuously during incubation with an aquarium air pump). After 48 h the Nauplius-larvae were collected from the culture vessel.

2.5. Brine shrimp lethality assay

The brine shrimp lethality assay (BSLA) was used to determine if the plant extracts of medicinal species were cytotoxic (Meyer et al., 1982; McLaughlin et al., 1991; Cepleanu et al., 1994, Coe et al., 2010). Plant extracts were diluted to concentrations of 1000; 500; 250; 125; 62.5; 31.25; 0 (μg/ml). Ten brine shrimp larvae were placed in each vial using a plastic pipette with a 2 mm diameter tip. The larvae were released under the surface of the solution to avoid killing them by trapping air under their carapaces. Survivors were counted under the stereomicroscope after 24 h, and the percent death at each dose and control was determined. All assays were run in triplicate. Vials with brine-shrimp in salt-water, and vials treated with 96 % Ethanol were used as controls.

2.6. Data analysis

The mean results of brine shrimp mortality were plotted against the logarithms of concentrations using the Probit Analysis tool of the NCSS statistical software package from which the median lethal concentration (LC50) at 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated according to the method of Finney (1971). Biological activity using the brine shrimp assay was recorded as the concentration when 50% of the larvae were killed within 24h of contact with the extract. LC50 values below 249 μg/ml were considered as highly toxic, 250–499 μg/ml as median toxicity and 500–1000 μg/ml as light toxicity. Values above 1000 μg/ml were regarded as non-toxic.

3. Results and Discussion

The Brine shrimp lethality activity of 501 aqueous and ethanolic extracts of 341 plant species belonging to 218 genera of 91 families used in Peruvian traditional medicine was tested. The results are shown in Tab. 1. The aqueous extracts of 55 species showed high toxicity values (LC50 below 249 μg/ml), 18 species showed median toxicity (LC50 250–499 μg/ml) and 18 low toxicity (LC50 500–1000 μg/ml). The alcoholic extracts proved to be much more toxic: 220 species showed high toxicity values (LC50 below 249 μg/ml, with 37 species having toxicity levels of >1μg/ml), 43 species showed median toxicity (LC50 250–499 μg/ml) and 23 species low toxicity (LC50 500–1000 μg/ml). Over 24% of the aqueous extracts and 76% of the alcoholic extracts showed elevated toxicity levels to brine-shrimp. Traditional preparation methods are taking this into account – most remedies are prepared as simple water extracts, thus avoiding potential toxic effects. Excellent examples where the water extracts are non-toxic, while the ethanolic extracts show high toxicity are Ocimum basilicum L., Salvia sp., or Laccopetalum giganteum (Wedd.) Ulbrich,. In contrast, Cinchona officinalis L. ethanolic extracts were nontoxic, and are traditionally used, while the highly toxic water extract has no traditional use.

Table 1.

Toxicity of medicinal plants used in northern Peru

Col# NCSS code Common name Family Scientific name LC50 μg/ml Aqueous 5–95% CI μg/ml LC50 μg/ml Ethanol 5–95% CI μg/ml Traditional use (O=oral, T=topical; Traditional preparation (A=aqueous, E=ethanolic)
ACR91 c166 Culantrillo Adiantaceae Adiantum concinnum Willd. 1131 64–>10000 4 0.01–1344 OA
AKT1226 c303 Cochayuyo Algae Gigartina sp. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR149, KMM395 c93 Moradilla Blanca Amaranthaceae Alternanthera porrigens (Jacquin) Kuntze >10000 >10000 130 21–780 OA/TA
KMM468 c195 Sanguinara Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sp. >10000 2–>10000 42 0.4–4034 OA/TA
ACR103 c533 Hierba de Oso Amaranthaceae Alternanthera villosa Kunth >10000 >10000 OA/TA
ACR191 c40 Siempre viva (corta) Amaranthaceae Gomphrena globosa L. >10000 >10000 6.7 0.001–3539 OA
ACR162 c242 Color Amaranthaceae Iresine herbstii Hook. >10000 >10000 0.2 >10000 OA
ACR119, ACR138 c298 Para Para Amaryllidaceae Eustephia coccinea Cav. 611 34–>10000 530 118–5417 OA/TA
ACR77 c654 Chacur Anacardiaceae Mauria heterophylla Kunth 35 >10000 OA/TA
KMM404 c285 Molle Anacardiaceae Schinus molle L. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA/OE
ACR81 c268 Guanabana Annonaceae Annona muricata L. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM566 c49 Bisnaga Apiaceae Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. cf. 8467 31–>10000 131 18–942 TA
KMM439, ACR22 c80 Apio del campo Apiaceae Apium graveolens L. 171 28–1024 25 2–248 OA/TA
KMM466 c702 Ricacha de zorro Apiaceae Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancr. 0.05 0.01–333 TA
KMM548 c208 Cilantro Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum L. 22 0.1–>10000 0.015 >10000 TA
KMM409 c217 Hinojo Apiaceae Foeniculum vulgare Mill. >10000 >10000 2.75 0.1–16904 OA
ACR82 c272 Hinojo Apiaceae Foeniculum vulgare Mill. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM467 c91 Sombrero Apiaceae Hydrocotyle globiflora Ruiz. & Pav. >10000 857–>10000 185 >10000 TA
AKT1196 c541 Hornamo Toro Apiaceae Niphogeton dissecta J.F. Macbr. 606 >10000 OA/TA
AKT1217 c663 Bejuco colambo Apocynaceae Mandevilla antennacea K. Schum. >10000 >10000 TA
AKT1221 c235 Bejuco negro Apocynaceae Mandevilla cf. trianae Woodson >10000 >10000 TA
ACR34 c28 Venenosa/Laurel Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L. 831 86–7988 71 62–2602 TA
KMM416 c341 Maichil Apocynaceae Thevetia peruviana K. Schum. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA/OE
ACR192 c76 Cuncuno Apocynaceae Vallesa glabra (Cav.) Link. 3486 144–>10000 1000 4–>10000 OA
KMM513, AKT1179 c39 Guayusa Aquifoliaceae Ilex guayusa Loes. >10000 >10000 300 55–1624 OA
KMM486 c265 Patecina negra Aracaceae Anthurium sp. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM445, ACR59 c343 Maqui Maqui Araliaceae Oreopanax eriocephalus Harms >10000 >10000 0.00001 >10000 OA/TA
KMM563 c230 Bejuco del Aire Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia cf. ruiziana Duch. >10000 >10000 8680 0.07–>10000 OA
AKT1127 c148 Juan Alonzo/ Espina de Perro Asteraceae Acanthoxanthium spinosum (L.) Fourr. 263 32–2134 290 51–1640 OA
AKT1188 c123, c193 Milenrama Asteraceae Achillea millefolium L. 34 3–308 487 16–14543 OA/TA
ACR139 c474 Milenrama Asteraceae Achillea millefolium L. 34 3–311 OA/TA
AKT1199, ACR2 c240 Hierba (o Flor) de Ishpingo Asteraceae Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 TA
KMM547 c65 Espino de Hoja Asteraceae Achyrocline sp. 40154 >10000 79 23–384 TA
ACR11 c543 Marco o Altamisa Asteraceae Ambrosia peruviana Willd. 14320 >10000 TA
AKT1099, KMM432 c146 Ajenco Asteraceae Artemisia absinhitum L. 93 15–557 >10000 >10000 OA/TA
AKT1144, KMM421, ACR78 c257 Carqueja Asteraceae Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers. 1261 >10000 1 >10000 OA
KMM556 c94 Pega Pega Asteraceae Baccharis glutinosa Pers. 4395 113–>10000 62 10–367 OA
AKT1126 c241 Cedron Asteraceae Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers >10000 >10000 1742 0.07–>10000 TA
KMM562 c26 Chilca chica Asteraceae Baccharis sp >10000 1432–>10000 155 32–735 OA
KMM498 c204 Chilca Asteraceae Baccharis sp. >10000 341–>10000 0.4 >10000 OA
KMM427, KMM469, ACR177, ACR58, KMM552 c143 Amor seco Asteraceae Bidens pilosa L. >10000 >10000 157 24–995 OA/TA
KMM446 c160 Arquitecta Asteraceae Chersodoma deltoidea M.O. Dillon & Sagast. >10000 >10000 113 22–576 OA
ACR46 c317 Arquitecta Asteraceae Chersodoma deltoidea M.O. Dillon & Sagast. 0.1 0.1–100 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR113, KMM555 c350 Asma Chilca Asteraceae Chromolaena sp. 4017 49–>10000 16 5–1824 OA
KMM434 c300 Huaman pinta Asteraceae Chuquiraga spinosa D. Don. ssp. humanpita C. Ezcurra >10000 >10000 1.1 0.1–>10000 OA
ACR85, KMM551 c128 Amaro/ Padre amaro Asteraceae Chuquiraga weberbaueri Tovar >10000 >10000 0.25 61–2804 OA
KMM414 c286 Alcachofa Asteraceae Cynara cardunclus L. >10000 >10000 21 >10000 OA
ACR124, ACR153, KMM478, AKT1145, AKT1192 c42 Gato Simuro Asteraceae Diplostephium sagasteguii Cuatrec. >10000 >10000 0.004 0.001–>10000 OA/TA
KMM412 c329 Mata gusanos Asteraceae Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze >10000 >10000 OA
KMM393, ACR41 c188 Lechugilla Asteraceae Gnaphalium americanum Mill. >10000 >10000 1311 >10000 OA
AKT1174, ACR63 c104 Palmilla Asteraceae Loricaria cf. ferruginea Wedd. >10000 >10000 15 0.8–276 TA
KMM473 c304 Palma Asteraceae Loricaria pauciflora Cuatrec. >10000 >10000 20 0.03–11551 TA
ACR182 c135 Palma Bendita Asteraceae Loricaria sp. 141 27–734 271 35–2054 TA
AKT1175 c226 Lavanda (la banda) Asteraceae Matricaria frigidum (Kunth) Kunth. >10000 >10000 262 45–1505 OA/TA
ACR6 c68 Manzanilla Asteraceae Matricaria recutita L. 2970 24–>10000 35 2–437 OA/TA
KMM519 c58 Caniahuanga Asteraceae Munnozia lyrata (A. Gray) Rob. & Brett. 2286 47–>10000 163 24–1091 OA/TA
ACR148 c348 Salvia blanca Asteraceae Munnozia sp. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA/TA
ACR150 c293 Hierba Aguila Asteraceae Onoseris odorata (D. Don.) Hooker & Amott >10000 >10000 1258 >10000 OA
KMM535, AKT1153, ACR54 c313 Escorcionera Asteraceae Perezia multiflora Less. >10000 >10000 4575 >10000 OA
ACR29, KMM436, KMM540, ACR39 c158 Chicorial Hachecoria Asteraceae Picrosia cf. longifolia D. Don. 2215 21–>10000 52 5–502 OA
KMM515, ACR49 c61 Hierba de Gallinazo Asteraceae Porophyllum ruderale Less. >10000 >10000 239 42–1337 TA
AKT1168 c54 Hiedra/ San Juan Asteraceae Pseudogynoxys cordifolia (Cass.) Cabrera >10000 >10000 200 31–1279 TA
ACR17, KMM536 c97 Encanchallacha Asteraceae Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze >10000 243–>10000 93 16–512 OA
ACR44, ACR28, AKT1156, AKT1098 c60 Vida Vida/ Vira Vira Asteraceae Senecio canescens (Humb. & Bonpl.) Cuatrec. 1614 71–>10000 365 0.5–>10000 OA/TA
KMM449 c684 Huamanripa Asteraceae Senecio sp. 0.4 >10000 OA
KMM442 c17 Huamanripa (macho) Asteraceae Senecio sp. >10000 >10000 252 46–1377 OA
KMM523 c575 Ornama blanco Asteraceae Senecio sp. 0.018 >10000 OA
KMM480 c19 Ornamo Asteraceae Senecio sp. 1989 66–>10000 255 39–1650 OA
AKT1158 c274 Ornamo tigre Asteraceae Senecio sp. >10000 >10000 20 0.3–1311 OA
ACR40, ACR197 c344 Yacon Asteraceae Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poepp. & Endl.) H. Rob. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR35, KMM438 c179 Cerraja Asteraceae Sonchus oleraceus L. >10000 >10000 262 41–1677 OA
KMM413, AKT1104 c70 Flor de Muerto Asteraceae Tagetes erecta L. >10000 1419–>10000 12 0.1–1268 OA/TA
KMM524, AKT1167 c44 Anis Asteraceae Tagetes filifolia Lag. 961 26–>10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR14 c316 Manzanilla de campo Asteraceae Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. 508 >10000 900 >10000 OA
KMM465 c294 Pajaro bobo Asteraceae Tessaria integrifolia Ruiz. & Pav. >10000 >10000 5 0.08–302 OA
KMM497 c164, c201 Anasquero Asteraceae Trixis cf. cacalioides D. Don. 2248 58–>10000 271 51–1440 TA
KMM521 c138 Ornamo Asteraceae Werneria nubigena Kunth 384 45–3290 26 3–193 TA
ACR151 c647 Chilca Dulce Asteraceae unidentified 2873 >10000 OA
KMM405 c107 Chunguis Asteraceae unidentified >10000 >10000 69 12–386 OA
KMM522 c147 Hierba de Amor Asteraceae unidentified >10000 248–>10000 341 65–1787 OA
KMM490 c183 Miscichilca Asteraceae unidentified >10000 >10000 0.1 >10000 OA
KMM538 c134 Olivo Asteraceae unidentified 3001 88–>10000 448 71–2793 OA
KMM565 c99 Sigueme Sigueme Asteraceae unidentified >10000 315–>10000 218 16–1314 OA
KMM497 c201 Asteraceae unidentified >10000 >10000 OA
KMM474, ACR130, AKT1169 c119 Huanarpo Balanophoraceae Corynaea crassa Hook. f. >10000 >10000 116 11–1152 OA
KMM573 c145 Palo Amarillo Berberidaceae Berberis buceronis J.F. Macbr. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR75, KMM418 c111 Avedul Betulaceae Alnus acuminata Kunth 64 10–384 90 15–519 OE/TA
ACR24 c176 Turuma Bignoniaceae Crescentia cujete L. 15 0.1–>10000 0.74 0.01–7711 TA
KMM429 c66 Achiote Bixaceae Bixa orellana L. >10000 >10000 8 0.03–2008 OA
ACR9 c71 Borraja Boraginaceae Borago officinalis L. >10000 169–>10000 1.4 0.02–81 OA
KMM489 c328 Ajo Sacha Boraginaceae Cordia alliodora (Ruiz. & Pav.) Oken. 4721 >10000 352 0.5–217030 OA/TA
AKT1114 c170 Overo Boraginaceae Cordia lutea Lam. 462 15–>10000 108 17–668 OA
ACR57 c297 Alegran Boraginaceae Heliotropium curassavicum L. >10000 >10000 1 >10000 TA
KMM406 c184 Flor de arena Boraginaceae Tiquilia paronychioides (Phil.) A. Richardson >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM451 c248 Bolsa pastor Brassicaceae Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. 223 1–>10000 82 14–472 OA
AKT1163, ACR94 c86 Berros Brassicaceae Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek 286 44–1859 49 8–287 OA
KMM520 c122 Hierba del carnero Bromeliaceae Puya hamata L.B. Sm >10000 >10000 1.4 0.1–>10000 OA/TA
KMM520 c473 Bromeliaceae Puya sp. 2 0.03–128 TA
ACR183 c32 Siempre viva Bromeliaceae Tillandsia cf. cacticola L.B. Sm. >10000 >10000 1461 51–>10000 OA/TA
ACR132 c106 Palo Santo Burseraceae Bursera graveolens Triana & Planch. >10000 >10000 139 4–>10000 OA/TA
ACR95, ACR207 c175 San Pedro Cactaceae Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) H. Friedrich & G.D. Rowley >10000 >10000 543 23–5149 OA/TA
AKT1220 c228 Tuna Cactaceae Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. >10000 >10000 465 >10000 OA/TA
AKT1195 c202 Canillahuanga Calceolariaceae Calceolaria percaespitosa Wooden >10000 >10000 924 91–9334 OA
ACR147 c57 Canchulaly Campanulaceae Centropogon sp. >10000 >10000 40 5–304 TA
KMM545 c77 Trinoso Campanulaceae Centropogon sp. 181 26–1235 26 0.002–>10000 OA
KMM443 c130 Contolla Campanulaceae Lobelia decurrens Cav. >10000 >10000 324 54–1922 OA
ACR194 c50 Alcaparilla Capparidaceae Capparis crotonoides Kunth 83 11–593 314 30–3213 OA/TA
KMM586 c221 Simura Capparidaceae Capparis crotonoides Kunth 1338 1–>10000 27 >10000 OA/TA
KMM554 c79 Zapote Capparidaceae Capparis scabrida Kunth 4805 80–>10000 76 9–601 OA
KMM390 c115 Madre de Selva Caprifoliaceae Lonicera cf. japonica Thunb. 455 48–4238 24 2–288 OA
KMM539 c23 Flor de Novia Caprifoliaceae Sambucus peruviana Kunth >10000 74–>10000 124 19–778 OA/TA
KMM455, ACR66, AKT1103 c117 Sauco Caprifoliaceae Sambucus peruviana Kunth 168 15–5758 26 2–307 OA/TA
AKT1125 c243 Claveles Caryophyllaceae Dianthus caryophyllus L. 1000 >10000 71 >10000 OA/TA
ACR31 c46 Paico Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium ambrosioides L. >1000 357–>10000 159 32–789 OA
KMM505 c108 Asancito Chloranthaceae Hedyosmum racemosum (Ruiz. & Pav.) G. Don. 148 20–1081 221 33–1477 OE/TA
KMM549 c198 Hierba del olvido Clethraceae Clethra castaneifolia Meiss. 980 49–>10000 1.4 0.1–>10000 TA
ACR109 c338 Olvido Clethraceae Clethra castaneifolia Meiss. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 TA
KMM533, AKT1172 c41 Pachuli/Chinchango Clusiaceae Hypericum laricifolium Juss. >10000 >10000 637 62–6491 TA
AKT1154, ACR152, KMM387 c152 Cintaura Clusiaceae Hypericum silenoides Juss. 545 >10000 45 7–271 OA
KMM568 c131 Mamey Clusiaceae Mammea americana L. >10000 >10000 197 20–1869 OA
KMM579 c299 Mirra Commiphoraceae Commiphora sp. 750 >10000 23336 39–>10000 TA
ACR98 c258 Pelo de duende Convolvulaceae Cuscuta foetida Kunth 13 >10000 OA/TA
ACR169, AKT1165, KMM537, AKT1113 c340 Pin Pin Crassulaceae Echeveria peruviana Meyen >10000 >10000 424 >10000 OA/TA
ACR96 c262 Sicana Cucurbitaceae Sicana odorifera Naudin >10000 >10000 488 73–3241 OA
AKT1181, KMM506 c156 Cipres Cupressaceae Cupressus sempervirens L. 467 51–4245 284 51–1576 OA/TA
KMM493, ACR126 c102 Hierba del Carpintero Cyperaceae Oreobolus goeppingeri Suess. 597 18–>10000 55 7–422 TA
AKT1184 c98 Pica flor Cyperaceae Oreobolus goeppingeri Suess. >10000 357–>10000 290 33–2545 TA
KMM462 c289 Papa de las Buenas Tardes Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea sp. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM583 c668 Papa cimentona Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea tambillensis Kunth 74 0.05–>10000 OA
KMM503 c124 Papa madre Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea trifida L.f. 492 43–5590 0.018 >10000 OA/TA
KMM503 c475 Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea trifida L.f. 361 39–3318 OA/TA
ACR158, KMM512 c126 Ambarina Dipsaceae Scabiosa atropurpurea L. >10000 4–>10000 1.1 0.1–>10000 OA
ACR158, KMM512 c477 Dipsaceae Scabiosa atropurpurea L. 192 21–1753 OA
KMM511, AKT1159, AKT1222 c29 Diego Lopez Ephedraceae Ephedra americana Endl. 689 67–7056 8 0.4–197 OA/TA
ACR1 c3, c140 Cola de caballo Equisetaceae Equisetum bogotense Kunth >10000 >10000 782 95–6415 OA/TA
ACR1 c140 Equisetaceae Equisetum bogotense Kunth >10000 3130–>10000 OA/TA
AKT1109, KMM527 c255 Purunrosa Ericaceae Bejaria aestuans L. 17 1–>10000 3.5 0.004–>10000 OA
KMM472 c690 Mullaca Ericaceae Gaultheria erecta Vent 162 >10000 OA
AKT1203 c269 Maique Ericaceae Gaultheria reticulata Kunth >10000 >10000 628 >10000 OA/TA
ACR151 c200 Chilca Dulce Euphorbiaceae Acalypha mandonii Müll.Arg. >10000 >10000 OA
KMM546 c30 Sangre de grado Euphorbiaceae Croton lechleri Muell.-Arg. >10000 74–>10000 152 13–1673 OA/TA
KMM487, ACR122 c87 Pinones Euphorbiaceae Jatropha macrantha L. 410 39–4209 93 11–732 OA
AKT1230 c278, c327 Pinones Euphorbiaceae Jatropha macrantha L. 2872 1–>10000 34 >10000 OA
KMM517, AKT1151 c144 Chanca Piedra Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus niuriri L. >10000 >10000 119 20–679 OA
KMM581 c191 Pai pai Fabaceae Caesalpinia paipai R. & P. 106 16–701 0.15 0.01–>10000 TA
ACR111 c82 Taya or Tara Fabaceae Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze 168 29–956 0.1 0.1–>10000 OA/TA
ACR10 c280 Chibato Fabaceae Cajanus cajan (L.) Millesp. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 TA
ACR88 c261 Cana fistula Fabaceae Cassia fistula L. 24155 1–>10000 243 33–1750 OA
AKT1162, KMM392, ACR201 c151 Pata de Pero, Marrayupa Fabaceae Desmodiuc colliculum (Kunth.) DC 360 7–>10000 15088 195–>10000 OA/TA
ACR102 c210 Chochos Fabaceae Lupinus mutabilis Sweet 4.74 0.1–>10000 1878 >10000 OA
KMM463, ACR51 c311 Trebol de agua Fabaceae Medicago sativa L. >10000 >10000 965 26–34747 OA
KMM459 c277 Fenogreco Fabaceae Melilotus albus Medik. >10000 >10000 487 16–14543 OA
ACR79 c127 Tapa Tapa Fabaceae Mimosa albida Humb. & Bonpl. >10000 >10000 965 26–34747 OA
KMM560, AKT1118, ACR190, ACR79 c266 Tutapure Fabaceae Mimosa albida Humb. & Bonpl. >10000 >10000 5385 >10000 OA
ACR196 c306 Quina Fabaceae Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms >10000 >10000 8 0.1–>10000 OE/TE
AKT1223 c602 Quina Quina Fabaceae Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms 927 2–>10000 OE/TE
ACR164 c700 Quina Quina Fabaceae Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms 0.001 >10000 OE/TE
ACR203 c342 Algarrobina Fabaceae Prosopis pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd) Kunth >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA/TA
KMM470 c260 Sen Fabaceae Senna monilifera H.S. Irwin & Barnaby >10000 >10000 69 >10000 OA
KMM407 c129 Retama Fabaceae Spartium junceum L. 616 70–5357 164 23–1155 OA/TA
ACR108, KMM407 c237 Retamia Fabaceae Spartium junceum L. >10000 >10000 144 64–>10000 OA/TA
AKT1194, KMM577 c264 Trebol Fabaceae Trifolium repens L. >10000 >10000 OA
KMM526, ACR30, AKT1207, AKT1147, ACR156 c22 Corpusway, Amargon Gentianaceae Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J.S. Pringle 472 55–4015 42 46–1292 OA
KMM403 c711 Angamacha Gentianaceae Gentianella bruneotricha (Gilg.) J.S. Pringle 0.2 >10000 OA
ACR20, KMM422 c173 Genciana Gentianaceae Gentianella crassicaulis J.S. Pringle 143 19–1069 419 57–3048 OA
KMM576, ACR155 c308 Genciana Gentianaceae Gentianella dianthoides (Kunth) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle >10000 >10000 0.08 0.0009–8 OA
AKT1164, KMM529, ACR55 c310 Sumaran Gentianaceae Gentianella graminea (Kunth) Fabris 2915 35–>10000 1066 0.4–>10000 OA
ACR92 c691 Horma de amarilla Gentianaceae Gentianella sp. 6 >10000 OA
AKT1171, ACR142 c139 Anijilla Geraniaceae Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Her. 1075 5–>10000 127 26–623 OA
KMM578 c227 Cachujillo Geraniaceae Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Her. 4.8 1–>10000 0.06 >10000 OA
KMM400 c220 Pasuchaca Geraniaceae Geranium sessiliflorum Cavanilles 1472 95–>10000 55 8–679 OA
AKT1208 c281 Anis estrella Iliciaceae Ilicium verum Hook. f. 3.6 >10000 323 61–1697 OA
AKT1100, ACR45 c252 Hierba de la justicia Iridaceae Hesperoxiphion niveum (Rav.) Rav. >10000 >10000 91 >10000 OA
AKT1111, KMM435, ACR71 c159 Nogal Juglandaceae Juglans neotropica Diels 4734 152–>10000 213 35–1266 OA/TA
ACR48 c549, c606 Ratania Krameriaceae Krameria lappacea (Dombey) H.M. Burdet & B.B. Simpson 1507 >10000 OA
ACR97 c141 Panizara Lamiaceae Clinopodium pulchellum (Kunth) Govaerts 7745 5–>10000 211 39–1137 OA
ACR18 c142 Albaca serrana Lamiaceae Hyptis sidifolia (L'Her.) Briq. 3574 23–>10000 151 28–816 OA
ACR69 c199 Pedorera Lamiaceae Hyptis sidifolia (L'Her.) Briq. >10000 357–>10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM452, ACR33 c292 Cordon de Muerto Lamiaceae Marrubium vulgare L. >10000 >10000 536 >10000 TA
ACR4 c229 Toronjil Lamiaceae Melissa officinalis L. >10000 >10000 1.7 0.001–>10000 OA/TA
ACR68 c5 Poleo Lamiaceae Mentha piperita Stokes 1439 20–>10000 322 18–5536 OA
KMM453, AKT1101, AKT1166 c64 Menta Lamiaceae Mentha spicata L. >10000 >10000 345 49–2382 OA/TA
AKT1142, KMM417, KMM456, ACR7 c12 Chancas de muerto Lamiaceae Minthostachys mollis Grieseb. >10000 586–>10000 142 28–723 OA
KMM437, KMM428, ACR32 c16 Albaca Lamiaceae Ocimum basilicum L. 8483 67–>10000 274 51–1465 OA/TE
ACR24, KMM471 c307 Mejorana Lamiaceae Origanuc cajorana L. >10000 >10000 1000 >10000 OA
KMM509 c216 Oregano Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare L. 309 33–2863 0.14 0.1–24811 OA
KMM419, AKT1134 c133 Culen Lamiaceae Otholobium glandulosum (L.) Grimes >10000 172–>10000 271 35–2054 OA
ACR67 c101 Culén Lamiaceae Otholobiuc cexicanum (L.f.) Grimes >10000 278–>10000 743 77–7163 OA
ACR16, AKT1129 c116 Romero Lamiaceae Rosmarinus officinalis L. 5357 104–>10000 36 3–364 OA/TA
ACR184 c10 Alamo Silvestre Lamiaceae Salvia sp. >10000 42–>10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM572 c291 Hierba de los sieta vientos Lamiaceae Salvia sp. >10000 >10000 0.006 >10000 OA
AKT1160 c215 Hierba del Aire Lamiaceae Salvia sp. >10000 >10000 4 0.06–273 OA/TE
KMM567 c336 Paja Amargoza Lamiaceae Salvia sp. >10000 >10000 7122 132–>10000 OA
ACR115 c239 Paja del Aire Lamiaceae Salvia sp. 1000 >10000 153 16–1428 OA
KMM550 c335 Unquia Real Lamiaceae Salvia sp. >10000 >10000 0.58 0.1–860 OA
KMM543 c59 Panizara Lamiaceae Satureja pulchella (Kunth.) Briq. >10000 287–>10000 144 30–693 OA
KMM397 c171 Romerillo Lamiaceae Satureja sericea (C. Presl. & Benth.) Briq. 59 4–794 382 54–2692 OA
ACR100 c55 Romerillo Lamiaceae Satureja sericea (C. Presl. & Benth.) Briq. >10000 >10000 80 13–461 OA
ACR178 c657 Poleo Gentil Lamiaceae Scutellaria cf. scutellarioides (Kunth) Harley >10000 >10000 TA
KMM575 c218 Canela Lauraceae Cinnamomum verum J. Presl. 194 1–>10000 132 13–2773 OA/TA
AKT1120, KMM444 c155 Palta Lauraceae Persea americana Mill. >10000 >10000 121 24–618 OA
ACR87 c322 Pelo de Pierda Lichen Siphula sp. >10000 >10000 12 0.9–158 OA
AKT1107 c319 Aloe Liliaceae Aloe vera >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OE
ACR157 c189 Contolla Lobeliaceae Lobelia decurrens Cav. >10000 247–>10000 351 0.01–>10000 OA
AKT1131 c238 Flor Blanca Loganiaceae Buddleja utilis Kraenzl. >10000 >10000 OA
AKT1170 c69 Condor Lycopodiaceae Huperzia sp. >10000 >10000 11 0.01–7493 TA
KMM541 c24 Condor Lycopodiaceae Huperzia sp. 422 18–9770 201 34–1190 TA
KMM477 c219 Condor crespo Lycopodiaceae Huperzia sp. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 TA
KMM479 c35 Condor Misha Lycopodiaceae Huperzia sp. 4524 >10000 157 17–1429 TA
KMM482, AKT1212 c231 Condor Purga Lycopodiaceae Huperzia sp. 4979 71–>10000 1.3 >10000 TA
KMM391 c165 Corontilla Lycopodiaceae Huperzia sp. 543 13–>10000 278 46–1650 TA
AKT1183, AKT1197 c320 Enredadera Lycopodiaceae Huperzia sp. >10000 >10000 85 0.5–>10000 TA
KMM483 c196 Trencilla blanca Lycopodiaceae Huperzia sp. >10000 >10000 0.04 0.04–>10000 TA
AKT1206 c85 Guamingo Lycopodiaceae Lycopdium sp. >10000 >10000 49 8–287 TA
AKT1198, AKT1191 c302 Trencilla verde Lycopodiaceae Lycopdium thuyoides Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. >10000 >10000 0.01 0.01–4.5 TA
KMM448 c72 Hierba del Toro Lythraceae Cuphea sp. 1464 82–>10000 15 0.2–1246 OA/TA
AKT1102 c100 Hierba del Toro Lythraceae Cuphea strigulosa Kunth >10000 >10000 14 0.1–1997 OA/TA
ACR135 c84 Ayahuasca Malpighiaceae Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Grieseb.) Morton 1099 70–>10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR26 c225 Malva de Olor Malvaceae Malva sp. >10000 >10000 0.0002 >10000 OA/TA
AKT1201 c282 Malva Real Malvaceae Malva sp. >10000 >10000 118 15–7331 OA/TA
AKT1200 c337 Malva rosa Malvaceae Malva sp. 1.8 1–>10000 0.4 >10000 OA/TA
ACR8 c56 Malva Blanca Alta Malvaceae Malva sylvestris L. >10000 >10000 6 0.2–157 OA/TA
ACR185 c683 Buenas Horas Malvaceae Urena cf. lobata L. 11 >10000 OA
ACR140, AKT1189 c137 Zarcilleja Melastomataceae Brachyotum naudinii Triana 0.59 0.1–2136 202 26–1109 OA
AKT1204 c62 Mococho Melastomataceae Miconia salicifolia (Bonp. ex Naud.) Naud. 188 31–1148 53 2–1443 OA
KMM544 c251 Porontillo Melastomataceae Miconia salicifolia (Bonp. ex Naud.) Naud. 1 1–>10000 2309 >10000 OA
ACR136 c249 Abuta Menispermaceae Abuta grandifolia (Mart.) Sandwith. >10000 >10000 317 35–2850 OA
ACR37, ACR99, AKT1132 c177 Boldo (Chilean) Monimiaceae Peumus boldus Molina 34163 0.5–>10000 43 >10000 OA
KMM570 c31 Palo Sangre Moraceae Brosimum rubescens Taub. 2605 119–>10000 537 63–4532 OA
ACR73, AKT1128 c287 Higo Moraceae Ficus carica L. >10000 >10000 1233 0.1–>10000 OE
KMM454 c197 Ciotrodora Myrtaceae Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. >10000 >10000 1114 >10000 OA
KMM408, AKT1110, ACR74 c136 Eucalypto Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globulus Labill 29 1–701 240 30–1895 OA/TA
ACR19 c73 Arrayn Myrtaceae Eugenia obtusifolia Cambess. 3755 2–>10000 47 4–503 OA
ACR180 c267 Limoncillo Myrtaceae Eugenia obtusifolia Cambess. 1000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR76 c43 Rumilanche Myrtaceae Eugenia obtusifolia Cambess. 174 19–1542 189 34–1032 OA
AKT1143 c162 Rumilanche Myrtaceae Eugenia obtusifolia Cambess. 78 6–896 164 23–1153 OA
KMM399 c14 Guanabana Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L. 1578 66–>10000 195 16–2302 OA
ACR207 c271 Pial Myrtaceae Scutia spicata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Weberb. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 TA
ACR188 c37 Clavo de olor Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry 254 44–1471 0.08 0.0009–8 OA/TA
ACR174 c290 Poma Rosa Myrtaceae Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston 12913 >10000 OA
KMM507 c109 Chchuhuasi Olacaceae Heisteria acuminata (Humb. & Bonpl.) Engl. 4479 151–132688 261 41–1661 OA/TA
AKT1211 c247 Jasmin Oleacaceae Jasminum sp. 1000 >10000 0.88 0.006–130 OA
AKT1187 c13 Anasquero Onagraceae Fuchsia sp. >10000 >10000 123 21–697 TA
ACR144, AKT1185 c276, c349 Hierba esperanza Orchidaceae Aa paleacea (Kunth) Rchb.f. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM530 c323 Hierba sola Orchidaceae Aa paleacea (Kunth) Rchb.f. >10000 >10000 0.001 >10000 OA
ACR165 c550 Espadilla Orchidaceae Epidendrum sp. 35 >10000 OA
AKT1177 c305 Hierba de la Espada Orchidaceae Epidendrum sp. 3.5 0.1–>10000 OA
KMM484 c190 Lancilla Orchidaceae Epidendrum sp. 3874 46–332446 164 29–919 OA
KMM492 c206 Hierba del Olor Orchidaceae Stelis sp. >10000 >10000 TA
KMM433, AKT1135, ACR61 c168 Cardo Santo Paparvaceae Argemone mexicana L. 101 6–1549 698 93–5250 OA
KMM420, AKT1112 c169 Hoja de granadilla Passifloraceae Passiflora ligularis A. Juss. 697 2–185545 299 42–2116 OA
KMM510 c88 Norgo Passifloraceae Passiflora punctata L. 22832 210–>10000 112 18–691 OA
AKT1122 c149 Hierba del Partero Passifloriaceae Passiflora sp. 601 72–5015 152 27–834 OA
ACR52 c125 Mocura Phytolaccaceae Petiveria alliacea L. 126 24–642 0.67 >10000 TA
KMM447, AKT1115 c132 Mocura Phytolaccaceae Petiveria alliacea L. 685 73–6430 1126 34–36468 TA
ACR52 c476 Phytolaccaceae Petiveria alliacea L. 159 19–1324 TA
KMM457, AKT1180 c18 Ailambo Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca bogotensis Kunth >10000 >10000 53 7–382 TA
AKT1148, KMM534 c121 Congona Piperaceae Peperomia inaequalifolia Ruiz. & Pav. >10000 605–>10000 1076 92–12469 OA/TA
AKT1148, KMM534 c579 Congona Piperaceae Peperomia inaequalifolia Ruiz. & Pav. 0.25 >10000 OA/TA
KMM532 c727 Piri Piri Piperaceae Peperomia quadrifolia Miq. 301 8–11047 TA
AKT1190 c621 Congonilla Piperaceae Peperomia sp. 12 >10000 OA
ACR21 c658 Lancetillo Piperaceae Peperomia sp. 242 15–3797 OA
AKT1148, KMM534 c472 Piperaceae Peperomia sp. 39 4–395 OA
ACR15 c120 Matico (sierra) Piperaceae Piper acutifolium Ruiz. & Pav. >10000 >10000 32 2–411 OA
ACR12, AKT1150 c67 Matico Piperaceae Piper aduncum L. 16070 114–>10000 164 17–799 OA/TA
KMM411 c332 Llanten Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. >10000 >10000 2.75 0.1–16904 OA/TA
KMM411 c565 Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. 537 55–5194 OA/TA
AKT1182 c223 Paja blanca Plantaginaceae Plantago sericea Ruiz. & Pav. 500 >10000 9 >10000 OA
KMM389 c114 Carrizo Poaceae Arundo donax L. >10000 >10000 39 5–269 TA
ACR5 c48 Hierba Luisa Poaceae Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf 73976 235–>10000 58 2–1778 OA
KMM450, ACR62 c110 Gramadulce Poaceae Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 84 9–740 81 13–476 OA
AKT1096 c318 Gramadulce Poaceae Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene 56 1–>10000 51 4–560 OA
ACR47 c346 Carrizo Poaceae Gynerium sagittatum (Aubl.) P. Beauv. 2474 1–>10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM502, AKT1261 c596 Cuña Cuña Poaceae Saccharum officinarum L. 9 0.3–247 OA/TA
KMM415 c233 Barra de oro Poaceae unidentified >10000 >10000 12967 138–>10000 OA
ACR86 c649 Cantuta o Cando Polemoniaceae Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam. 1.5 0.1–50755 TA
AKT1161, KMM495 c172 Adormidora Polemoniaceae Cantua quercifolia Juss. 374 9–15319 147 25–857 OA/TA
ACR80 c279 Pica Pica Polygonaceae Polygonum hydropiperoides Michaux >10000 >10000 2.35 >10000 OA
KMM496 c224 Mala Hierba Polygonaceae Rumex crispus L. >10000 >10000 45 >10000 OA/TA
AKT1137 c11 Calaguala Polypodiaceae Polypodium crassifolium L. 5255 106–>10000 129 20–839 OA
ACR176, KMM514, AKT1173 c232 Chucharilla Proteaceae Oreocallis grandiflora (Lam.) R. Br. >10000 >10000 OA/TA
KMM460 c187 Doradillo Pteridaceae Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham 131 0.1–>10000 208 37–1171 OA
ACR145 c7 Cuti Blanco Pteridaceae Cheilanthes pruinata Kaulf. >1000 349–>10000 383 59–2470 OA
KMM461 c245 Cuty Cuty Pteridaceae Cheilanthes pruinata Kaulf. 7064 1–>10000 1 0.1–39676 OA
AKT1108 c81 Cuty Cuty Pteridaceae Cheilanthes pruinata Kaulf. >10000 >10000 566 69–4610 OA
ACR112, AKT1215 c45, c47 Baston del Inca Pteridaceae Jamesonia alstonii A.F. Tryon >10000 >10000 41 0.01–112079 TA
KMM458 c321 Doradilla Pteridaceae Notholaena sulphurea (Cav.) L. Sm. 2564 >10000 12 >10000 OA
KMM464 c203, c214 Contra Hierba Pteridaceae unidentified >10000 >10000 0.003 >10000 OA
AKT1119, KMM410 c51 Pacra/ Flor de huamanripa Ranunculaceae Laccopetalum giganteum (Wedd.) Ulbrich >10000 >10000 51 5–484 OA/TE
ACR56 c4 Membrillo Rosaceae Cydonia oblonga Miller >10000 >10000 42 5–332 OA
ACR146 c284 China Linda Rosaceae Margyricarpu spinnatus (Lam.) Kuntze >10000 >10000 407 0.01–>10000 OA
ACR3 c164 Quinal Rosaceae Polylepis racemosa Ruiz. & Pav. 127 >10000 112 20–605 OA/TA
ACR172 c9 Capuli Rosaceae Prunus serotina Ehrh. 731 21–5289 81 14–465 TE
ACR70, AKT1155 c181 Zarzamora Rosaceae Rubus robustus C. Presl. >10000 387–>10000 2 0.001–>10000 OA/TA
ACR23 c296 Pimpinela Rosaceae Sanguisorba minor Scop. >10000 >10000 11 0.01–>10000 OA/TA
AKT1214 c650 Ornamo Leon Rosaceae unidentified 241 0.01–>10000 OA
ACR123, KMM525 c211 Cascarilla Rubiaceae Cinchona officinalis L. 0.5 0.1–250 950 >10000 OE
ACR160 c8 Noni Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia L. 142 24–842 156 30–809 OA
AKT1218, ACR198 c295 Uña de Gato Rubiaceae Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. ex Roem & Schult.) DC. >10000 >10000 644 4–>10000 OA/TA
KMM425 c63 Lima Rutaceae Citrus limetta Risso >10000 224–>10000 198 22–1776 OA/TA
KMM424 c15 Limon Rutaceae Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. 4111 131–>10000 483 63–3675 OA/TA
AKT1097, AKT1105, KMM430 c157 Ruda Seca Rutaceae Ruta graveolens L. >10000 >10000 73 12–447 OA/TA
ACR42, AKT1106 c212 Sauce Salicaeae Salix chilensis Molina >10000 332–>10000 1 >10000 OA/TA
KMM574 c27 Te de Judio Scrophulariaceae Capraria peruviana Bentham >10000 1075–>10000 7012 127–>10000 OA
ACR64 c678 Macacha Scrophulariaceae Galvezia fruticosa J. Gmelin 9848 142–>10000 OA/TE
KMM440 c207 Chiciricoma Scrophulariaceae unidentified >10000 >10000 1.3 >10000 OA
KMM516 c185 Palo china Smilacaceae Smilax kunthii Killip & Morton >10000 >10000 31 0.1–>10000 OA
KMM564 c312 Misha Blanca Solanaceae Brugmansia candida Pers. 3187 141–>10000 1.8 >10000 OA/TA
KMM528 c288 Misha Solanaceae Brugmansia sanguinea (Ruiz. & Pav.) D. Don >10000 >10000 0.2 0.01–>10000 OA/TA
ACR90 c36 Misha Solanaceae Brugmansia sp. >10000 >10000 67 9–476 OA/TA
AKT1116 c671 Floripondio (Flori pondio) Solanaceae Brugmansia suaveolens (Willd.) Bercht. & Presl 106 >10000 OA/TA
ACR36 c103 Hierba Santa (Sierra) Solanaceae Cestrum auriculatum L'Her. 1006 8–>10000 24 0.6–978 OA/TA
ACR83 c681 Hierba Santa Solanaceae Cestrum humboldtii Francey 28 >10000 OA/TA
AKT1121 c75 Agrosejo/ Cuncuno Solanaceae Cestrum sp. >10000 210–>10000 80 5–1192 OA/TA
KMM426 c33 Hierba Santa Solanaceae Cestrum sp. >10000 372–>10000 1.4 0.0045–435 OA/TA
KMM441, KMM582 c192 Floripondio Solanaceae Datura ferox L. 8677 59–>10000 234 15–8363 OA
KMM557 c209 Chilca Macho Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum L. 7.5 0.1–>10000 >10000 >10000 OA/TA
KMM388, ACR53 c118 Tabaco Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum L. 178 31–1005 39 4–337 OA/TA
AKT1124 c331 Hierba de Senorita Solanaceae Nolana cf. humifusa (Gouan) I.M. Johnston >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR99, ACR37 c333 Hierba Moro Solanaceae Solanum americanum Mill. 0.3 0.3–>10000 310 16–5788 OA/TA
AKT1138 c640 Torito Solanaceae Solanuc cammosum L. >10000 >10000 OA/TA
KMM561 c25 Palo Huaco Ulmaceae Celtis loxensis C.C. Berg 5388 58–>10000 508 70–3647 OA
KMM402, ACR72 c92 Ortiga Urticaceae Urtica magellanica Juss. ex Poir. >10000 >10000 2281 15–>10000 OA/TA
ACR199 c234 Chin Chin Urticaceae Urtica urens L. >10000 >10000 2494 0.2–>10000 OA/TA
KMM491 c398 Boton de oro Valerianaceae Belonanthus cf. >10000 >10000 OA/TA
KMM481, AKT1205 c186 Estrella Valerianaceae Phyllactis rigida (Humb. & Bonpl.) Pers. 201 0.1–>10000 3 0.1–>10000 OA/TA
AKT1117 c250 Valeriana estrella Valerianaceae Phyllactis rigida (Humb. & Bonpl.) Pers. 1 1–>10000 1265 >10000 OA/TA
ACR181 c34 Fortuna Valerianaceae Valeriana cf. bonplandiana Wedd. 109 12–969 112 17–703 TA
AKT1140, ACR120 c324 Hornamo del Caballo Valerianaceae Valeriana plantaginea Kunth cf. >10000 >10000 168 25–1122 OA/TA
AKT1141 c666 Ornamo Valerianaceae Valeriana sp. 64 >10000 OA/TA
AKT1213 c253 Valeriana Valerianaceae Valeriana sp. >10000 >10000 54 0.2–10591 OA/TA
KMM394 c244 Valeriana Delgada Valerianaceae Valeriana sp. >10000 >10000 40 3–408 OA/TA
KMM396 c194 Valeriana gruesa Valerianaceae Valeriana sp. >10000 260–>10000 0.8 >10000 OA/TA
ACR43 c113 Santa Maria Verbenaceae Aloysia scorodonioides (Kunth) Chamisso >10000 >10000 0.6 0.006–59 OA/TA
ACR159 c178 Cedron Verbenaceae Aloysia triphylla Royle 390 54–2818 1897 >10000 OA/TA
KMM398 c283 Cedron Verbenaceae Aloysia triphylla Royle >10000 >10000 0.01 >10000 OA/TA
ACR50, AKT1123 c112 Pacha Rosa Verbenaceae Lantana scabiosaeflora Kunth >10000 >10000 92 13–650 OA
AKT1202 c205 Hierba del Hombre Verbenaceae Lantana sp. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR25 c167 Salvia Real Verbenaceae Lantana sp. 290 36–2293 23 2–256 OA
ACR13 c3 Verbena Verbenaceae Verbena littoralis Kunth >10000 >10000 120 21–678 OA/TA
ACR154 c78 Sabadilla Verbenaceae Verbesina sp. 2750 87–>10000 34 2–390 OA
AKT1210 c153 Hierba de Susto Verbenaceae >10000 >10000 22 2–208 OA
KMM423 c345 Violeta Violaceae Viola sp. >10000 >10000 410 69–2440 OA
ACR195, AKT1203 c174 Cinta de Novia Violaceae Viola tricolor L. >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR27 c330 Pensamiento Violaceae Viola tricolor L. >10000 >10000 728 19–>10000 OA
ACR189 c325 Suelda con suelda Viscaceae Phoradendron sp. >10000 >10000 11 >10000 OA
KMM485 c20 Chimipampana Blanca Zingiberaceae unidentified >10000 0.62–>10000 234 32–1679 OA
KMM518 c105 Ajo Caspi unidentified unidentified 6919 >10000 74 7–926 OA
KMM403 c334 Anga macha unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 OA
ACR101 c38 Anguarate unidentified unidentified >10000 235–>10000 >10000 114–>10000 OA
AKT1219 c150 Anti ajo unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 1621 100–>10000 OA
ACR193 c314 Arnica (Solo la corteza) unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 164 23–1155 OA
ACR206 c83 Balsa blanca unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 178 20–4171 OA
ACR173 c275 Bejuco de montaña unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
KMM501 c53 Beldaco unidentified unidentified 42 2–696 13 0.2–818 OA
ACR143 c273 Canchalagua Morada unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 395 >10000 OA
KMM508 c21 Cardo Bendito unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 780 55–11043 OA
AKT1139 c259 Chimipanpana unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 716 >10000 OA
KMM569 c301 Chivato unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 17 0.7–406 OA
ACR84 c675 Choloque unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 OA
ACR106 c52 Contra hechizo unidentified unidentified >10000 102–>10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR141 c339 Estiagra unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 OA
ACR200 c326 Hercampuri unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 1.8 >10000 OA
ACR65 c89 Huamanrripa unidentified unidentified 5893 5–>10000 3693 12–>10000 OA
AKT1209 c154 Huarate unidentified unidentified 1329 122–14481 3873 146–>10000 OA
AKT1231 c270 Llanten Blanco unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 1219 >10000 OA
AKT1130 c254 Milagroso unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 1205 3–>10000 OA
ACR93 c315 Orillo de Brujo unidentified unidentified >10000 233–>10000 30948 2–>10000 OA
ACR104 c309 Paja del susto unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 OA
ACR60 c256 Pegajosa unidentified unidentified >10000 >10000 0.43 >10000 OA
ACR202 c161 Tutapure blanco unidentified unidentified 322 0.1–>10000 252 48–1308 OA
ACR110 c351 Yetama unidentified unidentified 672 84–5335 216 35–1314 OA
AKT1136 c222 Zarzaparrilla unidentified unidentified 750 >10000 1 0.1–>10000 OA
ACR182 c486 unidentified unidentified 141 27–733 OA
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Species which showed higher levels of toxicity were Bejaria aestuans L., Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Her., Brachyotum naudinii Triana, Miconia salicifolia (Bonp. ex Naud.) Naud., Cuscuta foetida Kunth, Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze, and Phyllactis rigida (Humb. and Bonpl.) Pers.. Achillea millefolium L., Artemisia absinhitum L., and Eucalyptus globulus Labill all frequently used as medicinal teas also fall in this group, as do Lupinus mutabilis Sweet, and Ilicium verum Hook. f.. Solanaceae (e.g. Nicotiana tabacum L. and Solanum americanum Mill.) proved highly toxic, while other species, known to be highly toxic when ingested (e.g. Datura sp. and Brugmansia spp.) did not show toxicity in Brine Shrimp.

Multiple extracts from different collections of the same species showed in most cases very similar toxicity values. However, in some cases the toxicity of extracts from different collections of the same species varied from non-toxic to highly toxic. Examples for such variation in toxicity were found for Chersodoma deltoidea M.O. Dillon and Sagast., Satureja sericea (C. Presl. and Benth.) Briq., Eugenia obtusifolia Cambess., Epidendrum sp., Capparis crotonoides Kunth, Sambucus peruviana Kunth, and Malva sp. In case of these frequently used species, harvest time, collection locality or use of specific plant parts might be important for a reduction of toxicity.

4. Conclusions

Brine-shrimp bioassays offer a quick, simple and cost-efficient way of testing the toxicity of plant extracts, and allow a high throughput. This is of particular importance in developing countries where a large percentage of the population relies on the use of crude medicinal plant extracts to meet their health care needs, and where large numbers of different species are used, often prepared in complex mixtures (WHO, 1998). The test does not necessarily constitute a direct link to toxicological effects in mammals (Sanchez et al., 1993), and should ideally be subjected to additional laboratory validation. However, it does give a good initial indication for the toxicity of the material tested.

Toxicity values with LC50 values below 1000 μg/ml are considered to be bioactive and might provide leads for further screening (Meyer et al., 1982). Over 75% of the species in the present study might have some cytotoxic potential. The toxicity values reported fall in the range reported by other authors (e.g. Coe et al., 2010).

Acknowledgments

The presented study was financed through MHIRT (Minority Health Disparity International Research and Training, Fund: 54112B MHIRT Program, Grant: G0000613), coordinated by San Diego State University (SDSU) in cooperation with the San Diego Museum of Man (SDMM), the P.A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology at the University of California Berkeley (PAHMAUCB), the Missouri Botanical Garden, USA, and the Universidad Privada Antenor Orrego (UPAO, Herbarium HAO), the Universidad Nacional de Trujillo (UNT, Herbarium HUT and Instituto de Medicina Tropical) and the Clínica Anticona Trujillo (CAT) in Peru.

None of the work would have been possible without the invaluable collaboration of our Peruvian colleagues, curanderas Julia Calderón, Isabel Chinguel, and Olinda Pintado, curandero Germán Santisteban, and herbalists Manuel Bejarano, Elmer Cruz, and Iván Cruz. With regard to ritual and therapeutic practices we especially want to thank the above curanderas, as well as curandero Leoncio Carrión.

Thanks also go to Eric Rodriguez (Herbarium Truxillense, HUT) and Abundio Sagastegui, Segundo Leiva, and Mario Zapata (Herbario Antenor Orrego, HAO) for the use of their facilities and their assistance in plant identification.

Most of all, we want to express our sincere gratitude to the people of Northern Peru for sharing their ethnobotanical knowledge.

Footnotes

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Declaration of interest This study was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health.

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