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Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine logoLink to Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
. 2012 Jan 28;8:6. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-8-6

Medical ethnobotany of the Albanian Alps in Kosovo

Behxhet Mustafa 1, Avni Hajdari 1,, Feriz Krasniqi 2, Esat Hoxha 1, Hatixhe Ademi 1, Cassandra L Quave 3, Andrea Pieroni 4
PMCID: PMC3285519  PMID: 22284581

Abstract

Background

Ethnobotanical studies are crucial in South-Eastern Europe for fostering local development and also for investigating the dynamics of Traditional Environmental Knowledge (TEK) related to plants in one of the most crucial European hotspots for biocultural diversity. The current medico-ethnobotanical survey was conducted in rural alpine communities in Kosovo. The aims of the study were twofold: 1) to document the state of TEK of medicinal plants in these communities; 2) to compare these findings with that of similar field studies previously conducted among local populations inhabiting the Montenegrin and Albanian side of the same Alpine range.

Methods

Field research was conducted in 36 villages on the Kosovar side of the Albanian Alps. Snowball sampling techniques were used to recruit 91 elderly informants (≥ 50 years-old) for participation in semi-structured interviews and structured surveys regarding the use of the local flora for medicinal and food purposes. Standard ethnobotanical methods were employed and prior informed consent was obtained for all study participants.

Results and Conclusion

The uses of 98 plants species belonging to 39 families were recorded; the most quoted botanical families were Rosaceae, Asteraceae, and Lamiaceae. Mainly decoctions and infusions were quoted as folk medicinal preparations and the most common uses referred to gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders, as well as illnesses of the uro-genital system. Among the most uncommon medicinal taxa quoted by the informants, Carduus nutans L., Echinops bannaticus Rochel ex Schrad., and Orlaya grandiflora Hoffm. may merit phytochemical and phytopharmacological investigations.

Comparison of the data with other ethnobotanical field studies recently conducted on the Albanian and Montenegrin sides of the same Alps has shown a remarkable link between the medical ethnobotany of Montenegrin and Kosovar side of the Albanian Alps. Moreover, folk uses of the most quoted wild medicinal taxa recorded in Kosovo often include those recorded both in Albania and in Montenegro, thus suggesting a hybrid character of the Kosovar local plant knowledge. This may be also explained with the fact that Montenegro and Kosovo, despite their differences in the ethnic composition, have shared a common history during the last Century.

Keywords: Albanian Alps, Ethnobotany, Traditional Medicine, Kosovo, Medicinal plants

Background

Ethnobotanical studies in South-Eastern Europe are seen as a crucial initial step for local rural development based on eco-tourism, small-scale trade of local medicinal plants, high-quality local foods, eco-museums, and community-based bio-conservation strategies [1].

However, this region is also considered very special for conducting studies having a human ecological focus, since it represents a unique hotspot of biological and cultural diversity in Europe, thus allowing cross-cultural comparisons of traditional environmental knowledge (TEK) concerning medicinal plants. In very recent years, the Western Balkans have been the focus of a remarkable number of ethnobotanical studies [2-9], mainly focused on mountainous communities [10-15].

In this study, we investigated the Kosovo side of the Albanian Alps (in Albanian known as Bjeshkët e Nemuna or Alpet Shqipëtare; in Serbo-Croatian known as Prokletije), which extends within a triangle among the Dinaric Mountains in the North-West, the Sharri (Šar) Mountains in the South-East and the Rhodope Mountains in the East and North-East. This covers a very pristine, and sometimes, remote area of ca. 3,500 km2, which is geo-politically divided among the sovereign states of Albania, Kosovo, and Montenegro.

About 1,000 km2 of these mountains belong to the Kosovo territory. The Albanian Alps system consists of 24 groups of mountains with 152 peaks higher than 2,000 m a.s.l. (the highest altitude in the Kosovo territory is reached by Maja e Gjeravicës at 2,460 m a.s.l.), with a large number of gorges, canyons, valleys, which make them among the most inaccessible [16], but also magnificent areas of the Balkans [17].

Due to the rich levels of biodiversity characteristic to this region, three national parks were established in the past in the Albanian Alps: one in Montenegro (Prokletije National Park) and two others in Albania (Theth and Valbona National Parks). A fourth national park in the area has been proposed to be located in Kosovo. Furthermore, Kosovo, Albania, and Montenegro are planning to join these parks and to create the cross-border Balkan Peace Park [18].

In general, Kosovo is characterised by a continental climate and in higher altitudes it is influenced by Alpine features [19]; for this reason, it has cold winters and hot summers, with an average temperature of 11.4°C. The Alpine area of Kosovo is characterised by total annual precipitation levels exceeding 2,000 mm. Specific geo-morphological, soil and climatic features provide an interesting richness and diversity of plant life in the Albanian Alps massif, with a flora belonging to three different bio-geographic zones: the Mediterranean, the Central-European and the Central-South European regions [17,20-22].

These unique features are reflected in the high plant biodiversity, which includes 1,609 taxa and ca. 150 vegetation units [23]. The most representative vegetation unites are: oriental hornbeam forest (Carpinetum orientalis scardicu), hop hornbeam mixed and with oriental hornbeam forest (Ostryo-Carpinion orientalis), thermophilous oak forests community (Quercus frainetto Ten., Quercetum frainetto-cerris scardicum, and Quercetum petraeae-cerris), chestnut forests (Castanetum sativae), beech forests (Fagetum montanum), and pine forests (Pinetum heldreichii typicum, Pinetum heldreichii thalictretum, Pinetum peucis, and Pinetum mughi typicum) [22,24].

People have withstood the extreme conditions of these areas for centuries - including very harsh winters. Until very recent decades, limitations in infrastructure and communication forced local residents to be self-sufficient in the provision of their healthcare. As a result, their primary pharmacopoeia consisted of local medicinal plants.

While recent studies on the Albanian and Montenegrin sides of the Albanian Alps have reported findings on TEK of wild medicinal and food plants [10,12,13,15], no ethnobotanical surveys have been conducted thus far in Kosovo, with the exception of a very recent work carried out by our research group in the Gollak area [9], and a review on folk botanical names in diverse Albanian-speaking areas in South-Eastern and Southern Europe [25].

The aims of this study were twofold: 1) to document the ethnobotanical knowledge related to the use of local medicinal plants in the Albanian Alps region of Kosovo; and 2) to compare the recorded data with the ethnobotanical studies recently conducted in the Albanian and Montenegrin sides of the same Albanian Alps. This was done with the overarching goal in mind of elucidating the role played by cultural/ethnic components in shaping use patterns of wild medicinal plants.

Methods

Field study

Ethnobotanical field research was conducted in 36 villages belonging to the municipalities of Pejë and Deçan, located close to the Koprivnik and Strellc mountains, and which represent the central group of the Albanian Alps located in the western part of Kosovo (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Study area in Kosovo.

The settlements and villages investigated are relatively small in terms of inhabitants (≤ 500 inhabitants per village). The native residents are ethnic Albanians, who speak Gheg varieties of the Albanian language. The exact population is currently unknown, as no population census has been conducted in Kosovo since 1981. Most recently, the area populations have been negatively affected by migration due to displacement and harsh economic conditions caused by the last Kosovo War (1998-1999).

Field studies were conducted from May to October 2010. TEK was recorded using semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire [26]. In particular, we sought the following information: respondent name and community of residence; local botanical names of useful plants; plant part(s) used; preparation/administration; local folk medicinal uses of plants.

Data were collected from 91 informants (67 male and 24 female) older than 50 years (50 to 79 years old). The respondents were mainly engaged in agricultural activities and typically inherited their ethnobotanical knowledge from their direct ancestors (parents, grandparents) via oral traditions. Study participants were selected using the snowball sampling method [2], and we particularly focused on local people who regularly use plants for medicinal purposes.

Prior informed consent was obtained conducting interviews and researchers adhered to the ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology [27]. During the interviews, fresh plants were collected to create voucher specimens for the herbarium and the informants were followed into the field to show us the quoted species. Most plant species were collected while flowering.

Taxonomic identification was done using relevant standard botanical literature of the area [28-31]. Plant nomenclature largely follows the Flora Europaea [32], while plant family assignments follow the current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group guidelines [33]. Voucher specimens of the wild taxa were deposited at the Department of Biology (Herbarium code DE/10), University of Prishtina.

Data analysis

Despite the fact that it is always problematic to compare ethnobotanical data recorded from studies conducted using different field methods and at different times, we have attempted to compare the wild medicinal plant uses recorded in Albanian Alps in Kosovo with those recorded in previously conducted ethnobotanical studies on the Albanian and Montenegrin sides of the same alpine range [11-14]. The Jaccard similarity index among the considered studies has been calculated as in the recent comparative analysis of the circum-Mediterranean medical ethnobotany [34].

Results and Discussion

The Kosovar medico-ethnobotany of the Albanian Alps

The results of the field survey are presented in Table 1; plants are arranged in alphabetical order by genus. For each species, the botanical name and family, local names, English name, botanical status, preparation/administration and folk medical or food uses are reported.

Table 1.

Medicinal plant uses recorded on the Kosovar side of the Albanian Alps in the current study.

Botanical taxon, botanical family and voucher specimen code Folk name(s) quoted by respondents English name Status Quotation frequency Part(s) used Administration Treated disease(s) or folk medical uses(s)
Abies alba Mill. (Pinaceae) 13/DE/10 Bredhi i bardhë European silver fir W + Resin Boiled in oil Stomach pain
Eczemas

Topically applied Skin infections

Mixed and boiled with milk butter Skin hematomas
Skin infections

Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae) 03/DE/10 Hajdukati Yarrow W ++ Areal parts Infusion Anti-diarrhoeal
Stomach pain
Anti-diabetic
Eczema

Tincture topical used in wound Antibacterial

Aconitum divergens Pančić (Ranunculaceae)
04/DE/10
Pelini i egër (i zi) W ++ Areal parts Infusion Stomach disorders
Oral cavity antiseptic
Anti-haemorrhoidal

Whole plant Infusion Anti-cholesterolemic

Leaves Squeezed and topically applied to the wound Anti-bacterial
Skin infections

Adiantum capillus-veneris L. (Adiantaceae)
01/DE/10
Majdanozi i egër Southern maidenhair fern W + Areal parts Decoction Bronchitis
Sour throat
Expectorant

Aesculus hippocastanum L. (Sapindaceae) 06/DE/10 Gështenja e egër Horse chestnut W ++ Leaves Infusion Expectorant
Anti-rheumatic

Fruits Decoction Antitussive
Anti-hypertensive

Tincture Anti-rheumatic

Agropyron repens (L.) P. Beauv. (Poaceae)
08/DE/10
Pirrovina Couch grass W + Roots Decoction Anti-rheumatic
Anti-anaemic
Stomach and hepatic disorders
Lithontriptic

Infusion Lithontriptic

Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae) 11/DE/10 Qepa Onion C + Leaves Decoction To treat influenza

Bulb Extracted with cold mineral water Anti-hypertensive

Allium porrum L. (Amaryllidaceae) 09/DE/10 Purrini Garden leek C + Leaves and stem Eaten fresh Anti-cholesterolemic

Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae) 10/DE/10 Hudhra Garlic C + Bulb
Leaves
Tincture Improve blood circulation
Anti-diabetic
Antibacterial
Anti-hypertensive

Decoction Tooth ache

Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. (Betulaceae)
05/DE/10
Verri Black alder W + Cortex Decoction, used to wash whole body Anti-rheumatic

Leaves Extracted with cold water Disinfectant on wounds

Althaea officinalis L. (Malvaceae) 07/DE/10 Mëllaga e bardhë Marshmallow W ++ Roots Extracted with cold water Expectorant

Decoction To treat lung disorders
Oral cavity antiseptic
Expectorant

Arctium lappa L. (Asteraceae) 12/DE/10 Bullushtra Greater burdock W + Areal parts Decoction Gastrointestinal disorders
Bronchitis
Lithontriptic
Leaves Boiled in milk (used externally Skin inflammation and ulcers

Aristolochia clematitis L. (Aristolochiaceae)
14/DE/10
Fiku i egër Birthwort W + Fruits Decoction Anti-haemorrhoidal Eczemas

Areal parts Decoction Infected wounds
Ulcers

Artemisia absinthium L. (Asteraceae) 02/DE/10 Pelini i butë Wormwood W + Areal parts Infusion Stomach disorders
Anti-diabetic

Beta vulgaris L. (Amaranthaceae)
17/DE/10
Sveklla Common beet C + Roots Decoction Anti-anaemic

Betula verrucosa Ehrh. (Betulaceae) 16/DE/10 Mështekna Silver birch W + Cortex Decoction Kidney infections

Leaves Decoction Lithontriptic
Brassica oleracea L. (Brassicaceae) 18/DE/10 Lakra Cabbage C + Leaves Fermented leaves topically applied Anti-bacterial

Bryonia alba L. (Cucurbitaceae) 15/DE/10 Stërkungulli White bryony W + Roots Extracted with sunflower oil, apply topically in pain place Anti-rheumatic

Calendula officinalis L. (Asteraceae) 28/DE/10 Lulduhani Pot marigold C + Flowers Extracted with cold milk Kidney disorders
Hepatitis
Stomach ulcers

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (Brassicaceae) 29/DE/10 Shtrapër Shepherd's-purse W + Whole plant Infusion Fever
Eczemas
Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae) 32/DE/10 Speci djegës Pepper C + Fruits Eaten fresh fruits Anti-rheumatic
Appetizing
Lung disorders

Carduus nutans L. (Asteraceae) 27/DE/10 Gjemb gomari Musk thistle W + Inflorescences Extracted with cold water for ten days and then used as tea Eczemas
Castanea sativa Mill. (Fagaceae) 20/DE/10 Gështenja e butë Sweet chestnut W/C + Fruits Decoction Headache

Fruits Decoction external applied Anti-haemorrhoidal

Centaurea cyanus L. (Asteraceae) 30/DE/10 Kokoçeli Cornflower W + Flowers Decoction Eye infections

Centaurium erythraea Rafin. (Gentianaceae) 21/De/10 Kiçica Common centaury W ++ Areal parts Extracted with cold water Stomach disorders
Urinary system infections

Decoction Anti-haemorrhoid
Anti-diabetic
Lithontriptic
Fever

Stem Decoction Lithontriptic

Cichorium intybus L. (Asteraceae) 22/DE/10 Çikorja Common chicory W + Stem Infusion Anti-diarrhoeal

Roots Decoction Bronchitis
Urinary system infections
Anti-haemorrhoid
Chelidonium majus L. (Papaveraceae) 31/DE/10 Tamblaqoku Tetterwort W + Areal parts Infusion Bronchitis
Lithontriptic
Stomach ulcers

Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae) 33/DE/10 Shalqiri Watermelon C + Fruit juice Fruit juice applied into the ear Ear-ache

Seeds Eaten dried seeds of watermelon, apple, melon To prevent prostate cancer

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (Rutaceae) 35/DE/10 Limoni Lemon C + Fruits Lemon juice mixed with honey Anti-tussive
Respiratory infections

Cornus mas L. (Cornaceae) 24/DE/10 Thana Dogwood W ++ Fruits Decoction Anti diabetic

Tincture Stomach disorders
Anti-rheumatic

Consumed Eaten raw

Decoction Anti-anaemic

Corylus avellana L. (Betulaceae) 25/DE/10 Lajthia Hazel W + Leaves Decoction Anti-diabetic

Crataegus monogyna Jacq. (Rosaceae) 19/DE/10 Murrizi Oneseed W ++ Areal parts Infusion Heart rhythm regulator
Anti-hypertensive

Fruits Decoction Anti-hypertensive

Flowers Decoction Anti-hypertensive
Insomnia

Cucumis melo L. (Cucurbitaceae) 36/DE/10 Pjepri Melon C + Seeds Eaten dried seeds of watermelon, apple, melon To prevent the prostate cancer

Cucurbita pepo L. (Cucurbitaceae) 26/DE/10 Kungulli Pumpkin C + Seeds Eaten Anti-helminthic
To prevent prostate cancer

Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae) 23/DE/10 Ftoni Quince C + Leaves Infusion Respiratory inflammations

Seeds Decoction Appetizing

Cynodon dactylon (L.).Pers. (Poaceae) 34/DE/10 Bar magari Bermuda grass W + Roots Decoction Anti-haemorrhoidal
Daucus carota L. (Apiaceae) 37/DE/10 Karota Carrot C + Storage root Boiled and eaten Stomach infections

Digitalis grandiflora Mill. (Plantaginaceae) 38/DE/10 Naprastak Big-flowered foxglove W + Whole plant Infusion Hart disorders

Echinops bannaticus Rochel ex Schrad. (Asteraceae) 40/DE/10 Gjembardha W + Roots Decoction Lithontriptic

Equisetum arvense L. (Equisetaceae) 39/DE/10 Këputja e arave Horsetail W + Stem and Leaves Infusion Lithontriptic
Urinary system infections

Euphorbia cyparissias L. (Euphorbiaceae) 41/DE/10 Bima e lythave Cypress spurge W + Stem Fresh leaves topically applied Warts

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae) 43/DE/10 Kopra e egër Fennel W + Flowers Decoction Constipation

Fragaria vesca L. (Rosaceae) 42/DE/10 Dredhëza e egër Strawberry W + Leaves Infusion Neuro-relaxant

Gentiana asclepiadea L. (Gentianaceae) 45/DE/10 Utrobica W + Roots Tincture Anti-rheumatic
Stomach ulcers
Hepatitis

Gentiana lutea L. (Gentianaceae) 44/DE/10 Sanëza W ++ Roots Tincture Improve the blood circulation
Bronchitis
Stomach disorders
Anti-hypertensive
Anti-asthmatic
Anti rheumatic
Anti-diabetic

Galium verum L. (Rubiaceae) 46/DE/10 Ngjitësi i vërtetë Yellow bedstraw W + Flowers Infusion Urinary system infections

Helleborus odorus Waldst. et. Kit. (Ranunculaceae) 49/DE/10 Shpendra Fragrant hellebore W + Fruits Applied in tooth Tooth-ache

Humulus lupulus L. (Cannabaceae) 48/DE/10 Sumbullari Common hop W + Fruits Infusion Kidney inflammations
Neuro-relaxant

Areal parts Decoction Insomnia
Menstrual cycle regulator

Hypericum perforatum L. (Hypericaceae) 47/DE/10 Kantarioni St. John's wort W +++ Flowers Decoction Stomach pain

Whole plant Decoction Respiratory disorders

Areal parts Extracted with olive oil Stomach pain
Skin infections
To treat skin after sunburn or thermal burn
Anti-tussive
Anti haemorrhoidal
Respiratory infections
Anti-cholesterolemic
Eczemas

Iris sp. (Iridaceae) 50/DE/10 Lule purriri W + Leaves Squeezed and topically applied to the ear Ear ache

Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae) 52/DE/10 Arra Common walnut W/C +++ Roots Extracted for one month with sunflower oil and then liquid mixed with honey. Lung inflammations
Anti asthmatic
Bronchitis

Fruits Decoction Anti-tussive

Honey (1 kg) mixed with fruits (1 kg) extracted for one month Lung inflammations
Anti-asthmatic
Anti-anaemic

Extracted with cold water. Anti-cholesterolemic

Tincture Stomach disorders

Leaves Infusion Anti-haemorrhoid al

Juniperus communis L. (Cupressaceae) 51/DE/10 Gllia Juniper W ++ Fruits Decoction Back pains

Extracted for 10 days in cold water mixed with lemons Kidney inflammations
Anti rheumatic

Decoction Respiratory inflammations

Decoction Stomach disorders

Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. (Cucurbitaceae) 53/DE/10 Pocerka Bottle gourd C + Fruits Fruits opened and filled with water and then water used to flush the nose Sinusitis

Linaria peloponnesiaca Boiss. et. Heldr. (Plantaginaceae) 57/DE/10 Lanilist W + Seeds Decoction Constipation

Linaria vulgaris Mill. (Plantaginaceae) 56/DE/10 Gjineshtra Common toadflax W + Areal parts Decoction Urinary system inflammations

Linum hirsutum L. (Linaceae)
54/DE/10
Liri W + Seeds Decoction Anti-haemorrhoidal
Urinary system inflammations

Leaves Infusion Headache
Respiratory inflammations

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (Solanaceae) 55/DE10 Domatja Tomato C + Fruits Beaked fruits mixed with sugar topically applied in wound Wound infections

Malus dasyphylla Borkh. (Rosaceae) 60/DE/10 Molla sherbete Apple W + Fruits Squeezed and topically applied to the ear Earache

Malus sylvestris Mill. (Rosaceae) 61/DE10 Molla e pyllit
Molla e egër
European wild apple W ++ Areal parts Infusion Anti-tussive
Expectorant

Fruits Extracted with cold water then fruit juice mixed sugar Anti-hypertensive
Anti-cholesterolemic

Fruits Decoction Anti-diabetic

Leaves Applied topically in wound Wound infections

Matricaria recutita L. (Asteraceae) 59/DE/10 Kamomili Chamomile W ++ Areal parts Infusion Stomachache
Oral cavity inflammations
Gingivitis
Urinary system infections

Flowers
Flowers
Infusion Oral inflammations
Urinary system infections

Decoction Constipation

Areal parts Infusion Drunk as a tea

Melissa officinalis L. (Lamiaceae) 58/DE/10 Bari i bletës Lemon balm W + Areal parts Infusion For treating abdominal pains during pregnancy
Areal parts Decoction Neuro-relaxant

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Lamiaceae) 63/DE/10 Menta Horse mint W + Areal parts Infusion Neuro-relaxant
Anti-diarrhoeal
Anti-hypertensive

Morus nigra L. (Moraceae) 64/DE/10 Mani i zi Black mulberry W + Leaves Decoction Anti diabetic

Origanum vulgare L. 65/DE/10
(Lamiaceae)
Qaji i bjeshkës Oregano W + Areal parts
Areal parts
Infusion Respiratory inflammations, flu

Decoction Anti-tussive
Digestive

Orlaya grandiflora (L.) Hoffm. (Apiaceae) 66/DE/10 Torilis White lace flower W + Areal parts Decoction Constipation

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (Apiaceae) 70/DE/10 Majdanozi Parsley C + Leaves Boiled with garlic and carrot Stomach infections

Decoction together with lemon Anti-cholesterolemic

Pinus sylvestris L. (Pinaceae) 69/DE/10 Çetina Scots pine W ++ Cones 40 cones mixed with honey (1 kg) eaten after one month Bronchitis
Decoction Anti-tussive
Anti-asthmatic
Bronchitis

Phaseolus vulgaris
L. (Fabaceae) 77/DE/10
Fasulja Common bean C + Seeds 2-3 soup spoons in the morning Anti-acid

Plantago lanceolata L. (Plantaginaceae) 73/DE/10 Dejzi heshtor Narrowleaf plantain W ++ Leaves Fresh leaves applied topically in wound Wound infections

Plantago major L. (Plantaginaceae) 67/DE/10 Dejzi gjethegjerë Common plantain W ++ Leaves Infusion Back pains

Eaten squeezed juice mixed with honey Bronchitis
Anti haemorrhoid
Stomach-ache

Applied topically in wound Wound infections

Polygonum bistorta L. (Polygonaceae) 75/DE/10 Reni Meadow bistort W + Roots Macerated roots (200-300 g) mixed honey (1 kg) Respiratory infections Expectorant

Populus nigra L. (Salicaceae) 72/DE10 Plepi i zi Black poplar W + Cortex Decoction Urinary system inflammations

Leaves Decoction Tuberculosis
Bronchitis
Anti-diabetic

Prunus avium (L.) L. (Rosaceae)71/DE/10 Bojlia Wild cherry C + Fruits Infusion Anti- diabetic
Anti-hypertensive
Respiratory inflammations

Prunus domestica L. (Rosaceae) 68/DE/10 Kumbulla Plum C + Fruits Decoction Constipation

Prunus spinosa L. (Rosaceae) 74/DE/10 Kulumria Blackthorn W + Fruits Decoction Anti-hypertensive
Anti-asthmatic

Eaten fresh fruits Consumption

Pteridium aquilinum Kuhn. (Dennstaedtiaceae) 76/DE/10 Fieri Bracken W + Leaves Decoction Anti-bacterial
Diuretic

Pyrus pyraster (L.) Du Roi (Rosaceae) 78/DE/10 Dardha e egër Wild pear W + Fruits Tincture Anti-hypertensive
Anti-cholesterolemic

Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Fabaceae) 82/DE/10 Bagreni Black locust W + Flowers Decoction Respiratory inflammations

Rosa canina L. (Rosaceae) 80/DE/10 Kaça Dog rose W + Fruits Infusion Drunk as a tea

Fruits Decoction Influenza
Increase immunity

Rubus fruticosus L. (Rosaceae) 79/DE/10 Mani Blackberry W ++ Leaves Fresh leaves applied topically in wound Skin infection

Leaves and fruits Decoction Tuberculosis
Influenza
Increase immunity

Fruits Eaten fresh fruits
Jam
Consumption

Rubus idaeus L. (Rosaceae) 80/DE/10 Mjedra Raspberry W + Leaves Decoction Sore throat
Influenza
Increase immunity

Sambucus ebulus L. (Adoxaceae) 83/DE/10 Kinla Dwarf elderberry W ++ Areal parts Topically in applied in pain place Anti rheumatic

Fruits Tincture Menstrual pains Regulation of menstrual cycle

Flowers Tincture Urinary inflammations

Sambucus nigra L. (Adoxaceae) 85/DE/10 Shtogu Elderberry W +++ Stem cortex Extracted with sunflower oil To treat sunburns

Boiled with butter milk To treat thermal burns

Flowers Infusion mixed with lemon and sugar Anti asthmatic
Bronchitis

Infusion Antitussive

Fruits Drunk fruit juice Anti-anaemic
Areal parts Decoction Anti-allergic

Salix purpurea L. (Salicaceae) 86/DE/10 Shelgu Purple willow W + Leaves Applied topically in breast Anti-fever

Salvia officinalis L. (Lamiaceae) 88/DE/10 Sherbela Garden sage C + Leaves Decoction Sedative
Antipyretic

Sempervivum tectorum L. (Crassulaceae) 87/DE/10 Bar veshi Houseleek W + Leaves Decoction after cooled applied in ear Ear ache

Solanum tuberosum L. (Solanaceae) 84/DE/10 Patatja Potato C + Tuber Cut in several pieces and placed in front of the head Head-ache

Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. (Asteraceae) 96/DE/10 Lule dielli Dandelion W + Flowers Decoction mixed with lemon fruits. Bronchitis

Teucrium chamaedrys L. (Lamiaceae) 94/DE/10 Arrsi i vogël Wall germander W + Areal parts Infusion Anti-haemorrhoidal

Whole parts Infusion Anti diabetic

Thymus spp. (Lamiaceae) 93/DE/10 Shpirti i nënës Wild thyme W ++ Areal parts Decoction Respiratory inflammations
Expectorant

Whole plant Infusion Bronchitis
Anti-tussive
Expectorant

Areal parts Infusion Lung inflammations
Expectorant

Tilia platyphyllos Scop. (Malvaceae) 95/DE/10 Blini Largeleaf linden W + Flowers Decoction Sore throat
Lung inflammations

Trifolium pratense L. (Fabaceae) 92/DE/10 Tërfoja e kuqe Red clover W/C + Leaves Squeezed leaves juice Stomach disorders

Trifolium repens L. (Fabaceae) 91/DE/10 Tërfili i bardhë White clover W + Flowers Decoction Anti-diarrhoeal

Triticum vulgare L. (Poaceae) 89/DE/10 Gruri
Karajpeli
Wheat C + Seeds Boiled seeds with water and added sugar Constipation
Anti-haemorrhoid

Flowers Decoction Kidney disorders
Anti rheumatic
Neuro-relaxant

Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae) 97/DE/10 Hithi Common nettle W ++ Leaves Eaten fresh Anti anaemic

Leaves and stem Tincture Improve blood circulation

Roots and Leaves Decoction Alopecia

Roots Decoction Anti-haemorrhoidal

Vaccinium myrtillus L. (Ericaceae) 98/DE/10 Boronica Bilberry W + Areal parts Infusion Anti-diabetic

Fruits and Leaves Decoction Neuro-relaxant
Urinary inflammations
Lung inflammations
Stomach disorders
Anti-hypertensive

Fruits Eaten fresh Consumed

Veratrum album L. (Melanthiaceae) 99/DE/10 Shtara White hellebore W + Leaves Decoction Anti-lice

Roots Decoction Head ache

Leaves Extracted with sunflower oil Eczemas
Haemorrhoids

Zea mays L. (Poaceae) 100/DE/10 Misri Corn W + Silks Infusion Anti-diabetic

+ quoted by less than 5% of the participants; ++ quoted by more than 5% and less than 30% of the participants; +++ quoted by more than 30% of the participants

We found that 98 species (belonging to 39 families) are employed in the traditional medicine of the area. These includes three fern species, three gymnosperms and 92 angiosperms (84 dicotyledonous and 8 monocotyledons); 74 taxa are wild. Of these species, Achillea millefolium L., Cornus mas L., Hypericum perforatum L., Juglans regia L., Juniperus communis L., Malus sylvestris Mill., Plantago major L., Sambucus nigra L. were cited more then 30% of the informants. From 98 species presented in Table 1, 23 species are also included in the official Pharmacopoeia of Europe [35].

The predominantly quoted botanical families were Rosaceae (12%), Asteraceae (10%), and Lamiaceae (5%). These same three "top" families were found to be also predominant among the wild medicinal taxa used in the folk medicine of the Alps in Montenegro, Albania, and in the Gollak region in Kosovo [9,11-14].

The most frequently quoted manner of preparation of medicinal plants was represented by decoctions (51%) and infusions (26%). The most frequently cited medicinal uses referred to gastrointestinal (26%), respiratory (19%) troubles, and illnesses affecting the urogenital system (12%). The first two categories were also the most frequently quoted in the ethnobotanical studies conducted on the Montenegrin and Albanian sides [11-14].

Most uncommon medicinal plants

Upon analysis of the bio-pharmacological literature on the quoted medicinal species available on PubMed, we found that it could be worthwhile to further investigate the following reports:

1. The internal use of cold water macerates of the inflorescences of Carduus nutans L. in the treatment of eczema (this taxon is scarcely known in the phytochemical and pharmacological literature). In 2000 a Turkish research group pointed out the hepatoprotective effects of extracts from this plant [36];

2. The internal use of decoction of the roots of Echinops bannaticus Rochel ex Schrad. for kidney stones (despite a few studies on other species of the genus Echinops, this Balkan species is largely under-investigated); and

3. The internal use of decoctions of aerial parts of Orlaya grandiflora Hoffm. for its laxative effects (the plant is completely unknown in the phytopharmacological literature).

Comparison with the Albanian and Montenegrin Alpine ethnobotanical literature

Table 2 and Figure 2 show the sites and field studies that have been compared with the data gathered in the Kosovar Alps.

Table 2.

Summary of the field ethnobotanical studies considered in the cross-cultural data analysis.

Area and country Study participants Year(s) when the field studies were conducted Number of study participants Reference(s)
Albanian Alps (Kosovo) Albanians 2010 91 Current study
Prokletije mountains (Montenegro) Bosniaks and Serbs 2006 and 2007 75 [15]
Northern Albanian Alps
(Albania)
Albanians 2004, 2005, and 2007 62 [11-14]

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Location of the study area in Kosovo and of the sites where previous ethnobotanical works have been conducted in Albania and Montenegro [11-14] .

Figure 3 and Table 3 illustrate the similarity between the wild medicinal plants used and recorded in the current study and those recorded in the Montenegrin and Albanian sides of the same Albanian Alps.

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Representation of the commonalities among the wild medicinal species quoted on the Kosovar, Montenegrin, and Albanian sides of the Albanian Alps [data from the current study and [11-14]].

Table 3.

Jaccard similarity index of the wild medicinal plants used in the Kosovar, Albanian, and Montenegrin Alps.

Group I Group 2 Species used in both groups Species used in one group only
(Group 1/Group 2)
Jaccard Index
Albanians in Albania Albanians in Kosovo 13 24/45 15.9
Albanians in Albania Serbs and Bosniaks in Montenegro 21 16/94 16.0
Serbs and Bosniaks in Montenegro Albanians in Kosovo 32 83/36 21.2

The link between the medical ethnobotany of the Montenegrin and Kosovar sides of the Alps - despite the different ethnicity/language of the local populations - appears stronger than the link between the ethnobotany of these two locations and the ethnobotany Albania.

This apparent paradox could be explained in a number of ways:

1. Different sampling techniques may have been adopted during the field survey in the three locations or the socio-economic background of the interviewees could have been different. For example, on the Albanian side of the Alps, the previous ethnobotanical studies selected local informants from very remote areas, which remained quite isolated during Communist times and with very limited access to urban environments and culture. It could be especially worthwhile to further assess the influence of the popular phytotherapeutical literature on folk medicine in Montenegro and Kosovo, since during the Yugoslavian time this kind of popularised knowledge was said to be "en-vogue". For example, this is very evident in the Montenegrin data, where a number of possible "modern" uses of local medicinal plants (i.e. Hypericum perforatum used as an anti-depressive) were recorded.

2. The study sites chosen in Kosovo and Montenegro are on average located at lower elevations than the sites selected in Northern Albania, thus resulting in a partially different ecological setting and availability of certain species in the environments.

3. Both the Montenegrin and Kosovar side of the Albanian Alps have had a common history for the most part of the 20th Century, since belonging to the same country (former Yugoslavia). This may have "homogenised" eventual pre-existing differences in plant perceptions/uses between the Albanian and Slav communities. Moreover, a few South-Slav communities (i.e. Bosniaks [2-4,7,8]) could be surely considered much more "herbophilic" than the Albanian ones, and this may have influenced the folk medicine of the Kosovar population to a certain degree during the last century, who have always lived in contacts with the Slavs.

4. The Montenegrin study included self-declaring Serbian and Bosniak communities. However, a large part of the Bosniak community living in the Gusinje area is represented also by "bosniakised" Albanians, whose Catholic tribes settled on this side of the Albanian Alps and converted to Islam a couple of centuries ago [37]. This could mean that the ethnobotanical data of Montenegro and Kosovo may actually refer to the same core of Muslim Albanians.

Despite the commonalities found on the quoted medicinal plants, Table 4 shows the different uses of the wild taxa, which have been most quoted in all three sides of the Alps.

Table 4.

Comparison of the most quoted folk medicinal uses of wild taxa in the current study and in ethnobotanical studies previously conducted in Albania and Montenegro [11-14] (Same or similar uses are underlined

Botanical taxon Used part(s) Pathologies treated in the folk medicine of the Kosovar Alps Pathologies treated in the folk medicine of the Montenegrin Alps [15] Pathologies treated in the folk medicine of Albanian Alps [11-14]
Centaurium erythraea Rafn. Aerial parts Stomach-disorders
Diabetes
Fever
Kidney stones and UTIs
Stomach disorders and loss of appetite
Diabetes
Fever
Cornus mas L. Fruits Stomach disorders
Diabetes
Rheumatisms
Anaemia
Dhiarroea Intestinal troubles
Gentiana spp. Roots Blood circulation- related diseases (including hypertension)
Bronchitis and asthma
Stomach disorders
Rheumatisms
Stomach-ache Cardiovascular diseases
Hypericum spp. Flowering aerial parts Stomach disorders
Bronchitis and asthma Hypertension
Skin infections, sunburns, and eczemas
Haemorrhoids
Anti-cholesterolemic
Gastritis
Anxiety and depression
Skin inflammations and burns
Stomach and digestive disorders
Anxiety
Respiratory diseases
Fever
UTIs
Origanum vulgare L. Aerial parts Respiratory diseases
Digestion
UTIs
Respiratory diseases
Digestive
Respiratory diseases
Digestive
Diuretic
Plantago spp. Aerial parts Stomach-ache
Respiratory diseases
Wounds
Haemorrhoids
Back-pains
Respiratory diseases
Mouth and skin inflammations
Fever
Haemorrhoids
Abdominal pains
Wounds
Diuretic
Urtica dioica L. Roots Haemorrhoids
Alopecia
Haemorrhoids
Fever
Arthritis
Anaemia
Alopecia
UTIs
Rheumatisms
Alopecia
Genital problems

UTIs: Urinary Tract Infections

From Table 4 it is interesting to underline that the folk uses of the wild medicinal taxa recorded in Kosovo often include both the uses recorded in Albania and those in Montenegro. It would then appear that the medico-ethnobotany of Kosovo - because of its history in the last century and the exposure to the South-Slavic ethnobotanical traditions - has possibly incorporated both Albanian and Slavic plant uses.

Conclusions

Medicinal plants still play a crucial role in the sphere of human health in the Albanian Alps, not only in the Montenegrin and Albanian territory, but also on the Kosovar side. Oftentimes, these mountainous communities have limited or non-existent access to Western biomedical modalities, and are instead self-reliant on their TEK. The local flora is thus incredibly important to provide the first health care within the households of the Albanian Alps.

Moreover, the biodiversity richness and unique bio-cultural heritage of the local people here is something to be highly valued. Steps towards this end are evident in the formation of protected parks for biodiversity conservation - but further efforts in conservation of the human TEK diversity and cultural heritage are necessary as well. TEK-dependent activities such as sustainable gathering of wild medicinal taxa, their small-scale trade, and production of local high quality plant-based foods and dairy products can all contribute to the growing eco-tourism initiatives. Thus, TEK is a critical component to success in the future economic development and biocultural conservation efforts of the region.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

BM and AH conceived the study, and participated in its design and coordination. AH and HA carried out the field study; EH and FK verified the identification of the plant taxa; AH, AP, and CLQ performed the data analysis and drafted the discussion. CLQ edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Contributor Information

Behxhet Mustafa, Email: behxhetm@yahoo.com.

Avni Hajdari, Email: avhajdari@hotmail.com.

Feriz Krasniqi, Email: fkrasniqi@hotmail.com.

Esat Hoxha, Email: esathoxha@yahoo.com.

Hatixhe Ademi, Email: hademi@hotmail.com.

Cassandra L Quave, Email: cassy.quave@gmail.com.

Andrea Pieroni, Email: a.pieroni@unisg.it.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks are due to all the inhabitants of the Kosovar Alps who participated in this study.

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