Skip to main content
NCBI home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2013 Jun 1.
Published in final edited form as: Curr Opin Immunol. 2012 Apr 20;24(3):284–289. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2012.03.012

Innate lymphoid cells: critical regulators of allergic inflammation and tissue repair in the lung

Laurel A Monticelli 1, Gregory F Sonnenberg 1, David Artis 1,2
PMCID: PMC3383398  NIHMSID: NIHMS368157  PMID: 22521139

Abstract

Maintenance of epithelial barrier function in the skin, respiratory tract and intestine is critical to limit exposure to commensal and pathogenic microbes and to maintain tissue homeostasis. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a recently recognized innate immune cell population that plays critical roles in host defense, regulation of inflammation and promotion of wound healing and tissue repair at barrier surfaces. In this review we discuss recent advances in the understanding of how ILC populations in the respiratory tract impact allergic airway inflammation and lung epithelial repair.

Introduction

Recent studies have identified a previously unrecognized population of immune cells called innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) that serve as crucial regulators of immunity and inflammation at barrier surfaces [1–3]. ILCs are a heterogeneous cell population found in multiple tissue sites that share morphological, developmental, and functional similarities with CD4+ T helper cells, but lack antigen receptors. Although the cell lineage relationships between phenotypically distinct ILC populations are not yet fully understood, ILCs are thought to arise from a common bone marrow-derived lymphoid precursor that is dependent on the transcription factor inhibitor of DNA-binding 2 (Id2) [1]. Distinct phenotypic and transcriptional profiles and patterns of effector cytokine expression allow ILCs to be broadly divided into three classes: classical NK cells, RORγt-dependent ILCs and RORγt-independent ILCs [1–3]. Phenotypically, the latter two ILC populations can be broadly defined by the absence of expression of cell lineage makers associated with dendritic cells (DC), macrophages, granulocytes and lymphocytes but positively identified by expression of c-Kit, CD90 (Thy1), CD25 (IL-2Rα) and CD127 (IL-7Rα) [1–3]. The development, regulation and function of classical NK cells and RORγt-dependent ILCs at various tissue sites have been thoroughly reviewed elsewhere [1,3–6]. Therefore, this review will focus on recently identified roles for RORγt-independent ILC subsets in regulating immunity, inflammation and tissue homeostasis in the respiratory tract.

Production of the Th2 cytokines IL-5 and IL13 is a hallmark of both pathogenic allergic inflammation and protective anti-helminth parasite immune responses at mucosal sites [3,7–9]. Studies published in three independent laboratories identified populations of non-NK cell, RORγt-independent ILCs (termed Natural Helper cells (NHC), Nuocytes or Innate Helper Type 2 cells (Ih2)) that express a cytokine profile similar to CD4+ Th2 cells and could promote immunity against intestinal helminth parasites [10–12]. Development of these “Type 2” ILCs (also termed ILC2 [1]) requires the transcription factors Id2 and RORα but is independent of RORγt [10,13], thereby distinguishing Type 2 ILCs from the RORγt+ ILC subset that expresses IL-22 and IL-17A. Type 2 ILCs express the receptors for the epithelial cell-derived cytokines IL-25 (IL-17Rb) and IL-33 (T1/ST2) and produce IL-5 and IL-13 upon IL-25 and/or IL-33 stimulation [6,11,13]. In parallel with these studies, a fourth report identified a population of IL-25-elicited, multi-potent progenitor type 2 cells (MMPtype2 cells) which also promotes anti-helminth immunity, but are functionally distinct from other Type 2 ILCs due to their cell surface marker expression and ability to differentiate into cells of the myeloid lineage [14]. This review will discuss recent reports identifying lung-resident human and murine Type 2 ILCs and defining emerging roles for these ILCs in regulating inflammation and tissue repair in the lung.

Identification of ILCs in the respiratory tract of mice and humans

Recent studies from a number of laboratories identified a population of ILCs in murine lung parenchyma [15–22] analogous to the Type 2 ILC population previously reported in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), fat-associated lymphoid clusters (FALC) and spleen [10–12]. Examination of the lung parenchyma of wildtype or Rag1−/− mice in the steady-state revealed a constitutive population of Id2-dependent lineage-negative (Lin−) cells that expressed CD90, c-Kit, CD127 (IL-7Rα), CD25 (IL-2Rα), CD44, ICOS and T1/ST2 (IL-33R) but lacked expression of NK cell markers and RORγt, a phenotype consistent with Type 2 ILCs ([16]; Fig 1). Stimulation of lung ILCs with IL-33 in combination with IL-2 and IL-7 resulted in production of IL-5 and IL-13, but these cells did not produce IL-22, IL-17A or IFNγ [15,16], demonstrating that the ILC population in the lung resembles Type 2 ILCs that express Th2-associated cytokines and is distinct from RORγt-dependent populations that express the Th17-associated cytokines IL-17A and IL-22.

Figure 1. Regulation, phenotype and function of lung-resident Type 2 ILCs.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

In the lung, numerous infectious and allergic stimuli can promote epithelial cell and macrophage expression of IL-33. IL-33, IL-2 and IL-7 have been shown to act on Type 2 ILCs (defined as Lin− cells that express ST2, CD127, CD25 and c-Kit) to induce expression of autocrine IL-9 and paracrine IL-5, IL-13 and amphiregulin (Areg) that, depending on the context, can induce either pathologic allergic airway inflammation or protective airway tissue repair.

While previous studies have identified RORγt+ ILCs in human adult tonsil or intestinal tissue that produce IL-22 or IL-17A [23–27], until recently there were no reports of whether Type 2 ILC populations could also be detected in human tissue. In 2011, two independent studies identified a population of ILCs in human lung and intestine that is phenotypically and functionally analogous to Type 2 ILCs described in mice [16,28]. Examination of healthy human lung tissue or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from lung transplant patients revealed a constitutive population of Lin− cells expressing CD25, CD127 and ST2, a cell surface phenotype shared by Type 2 ILCs in the murine lung parenchyma [16]. In a comprehensive characterization of human ILC populations at multiple tissue sites, Mjosberg et al. detected an ILC population in both adult and fetal lung and intestinal tissue that were identified by their expression of CD161 and CRTH2, a chemoattractant receptor previously reported to be expressed on CD4+ Th2 cells [28]. Human CRTH2+ ILCs were responsive to IL-25 or IL-33 in combination with IL-2, which allowed for the generation of long-term cultures and stable cell lines that were terminally differentiated [28]. Analogous to Type 2 ILC populations in mice, CRTH2+ ILCs isolated from fetal intestine produced IL-13, but not IL-22 or IL-17A [28]. Notably, Spits and colleagues were able to detect CRTH2+ ILCs in human blood, suggesting that these cells have the capacity to circulate throughout the body to traffic to different tissue sites. Interestingly, CRTH2+ ILCs in human blood displayed some level of plasticity not observed in tissue-resident ILC populations. CRTH2+ ILCs in the blood could produce IL-22 in addition to IL-13 [28], providing some evidence that the blood may harbor a progenitor ILC population capable of differentiating into either an IL-22-producing RORγt-dependent ILC or an IL-13-producing Type 2 ILC depending upon the cytokine milieu in the tissue microenvironment.

Influence of Type 2 ILCs on regulation of allergic airway inflammation

The identification of Type 2 ILCs in respiratory tissue raises questions about their potential involvement in regulation of pulmonary immunity, inflammation or tissue homeostasis. Several recent studies have emerged demonstrating critical roles for lung ILCs in the development of allergic airway inflammation or promotion of airway epithelial repair. For example, Umetsu and colleagues observed that ILCs in the respiratory tract played a pathologic role in promoting airway hyper-reactivity (AHR) following viral infection. In these studies, infection with influenza A virus subtype H3N1 induced acute allergic airway inflammation characterized by a rapid AHR response that developed independently of adaptive immunity [15]. Following virus infection, macrophage-derived IL-33 induced expansion of Lin− CD90+ ST2+ Sca-1+ ILCs that expressed high amounts of IL-5 and IL-13. Moreover, disruption of the IL-33/IL-33R signaling pathway or anti-CD90 monoclonal antibody-mediated depletion of ILCs resulted in protection from influenza virus-induced AHR [15], suggesting an essential role for ILCs in promoting airway inflammation (Fig 1). IL-13 has been shown to promote epithelial cell proliferation in multiple settings of airway injury or inflammation [8,29–31]. Strikingly, adoptive transfer of wildtype, but not IL-13-deficient ILCs, was sufficient to drive AHR responses in IL-13-deficient hosts [15], indicating that ILC-derived IL-13 is critical for induction of allergic airway inflammation following viral infection.

In addition to regulating virus-induced airway hyper-reactivity, further studies have defined roles for Type 2 lung ILCs in promoting allergic inflammation in response to a wide variety of antigenic stimuli. Using dual-reporter mice tracking expression of Il4 and Il13 transcripts, studies by McKenzie and colleagues demonstrated that IL-13-expressing ILCs accumulate in the lung following intranasal challenge with OVA antigen, IL-25 recombinant protein or IL-33 recombinant protein [18]. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of IL-13-sufficient ILCs, but not IL-13-deficient ILCs, promoted airway hyper-reactivity in response to IL-25 intranasal challenge, demonstrating that ILC-derived IL-13 is a crucial regulator of allergic airway inflammation in this setting. Supporting this, an additional study using intranasal challenge with NKT glycolipid antigen showed a similar dependence on ILC-derived IL-13 to promote airway hyper-reactivity [17]. A third study examining papain allergen-induced inflammation implicated Type 2 ILCs as essential mediators of eosinophilic infiltration and mucus production in the airways [22], providing further evidence that ILC-derived Type 2 cytokines are central to the promotion of allergic airway inflammation in multiple models of airway inflammation.

In addition to IL-5 and IL-13 production, one study by Wilhelm et al. also demonstrated that ILCs in the lung are capable of expressing IL-9, a cytokine linked to allergic airway inflammation [32]. ILC production of IL-9 in response to papain-induced airway inflammation was dependent upon IL-2 from adaptive immune cells, indicating an important link between adaptive immunity and regulation of ILC function. Critically, while IL-9 expression by ILCs was transient and decreased quickly after papain challenge, antibody-mediated neutralization of IL-9 resulted in reduced IL-5 and IL-13 expression in ILCs, suggesting that IL-9 acts to promote production of Type 2 cytokines involved in driving allergic inflammation [32] (Fig 1). Future studies are needed to determine the differential effects of IL-5, IL-13 and IL-9 in ILC-dependent regulation of allergic airway inflammation.

In addition to promoting allergen-induced Type 2 cytokine responses, recent studies identified that lung ILCs can produce IL-5 and IL-13 in the context of helminth infection. As part of the natural life cycle for many helminth parasites, the worms migrate through the lung where they cause substantial tissue damage before being coughed up and swallowed to complete maturation within the gut [9,33]. The cellular and molecular mechanisms that regulate worm exit from the lung and subsequent repair of the damaged respiratory tissue are not fully understood [9,33]. Two recent studies by Liang et al. and Yasuda et al. showed that IL-13-producing Type 2 ILCs accumulated in the lung in response to Nippostrongylus brasiliensis or Strongyloides venezuelensis helminth infection [19,34], presumably due to elevated IL-33 levels. The investigators hypothesize that production of IL-5 by Type 2 ILCs and subsequent recruitment of eosinophils to the airways may contribute to expulsion of the parasites [19] (Fig 1), although direct evidence supporting this remains to be determined. Additionally, the potential role of ILC-derived IL-13 in the lung during helminth infection is unknown. IL-13 is a potent inducer of epithelial hyperplasia characteristic of both injury repair responses and chronic pulmonary fibrosis [8,30,31]. Whether Type 2 ILCs are involved in regulating lung tissue repair in the early acute injury phase during larval migration or may contribute to the later development of chronic fibrosis remains to be determined.

Elevated levels of IL-5 and IL-13 are also associated with allergic airway disorders in human patients [8,29,35,36], but the potential contribution of ILCs to the development and/or progression of allergic inflammation in humans is unclear. In their recent study, Mjosberg and colleagues found elevated numbers of CRTH2+ ILCs in the nasal polyps of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis, an allergic Type 2 inflammatory disease characterized by high levels of circulating IgE and eosinophilia [28]. Based on these observations, it is possible that high amounts of IL-5 produced by CRTH2+ ILCs within the nasal polyps can contribute to the robust eosinophilia observed in this disease. Consistent with this hypothesis, patients with rhinosinusitis polyps have higher levels of IL-5 and IL-13 transcripts than patients without polyps [28], suggesting that CRTH2+ ILCs may be an important target in the development of new therapeutic strategies to ameliorate allergic airway inflammation.

Role of Type 2 ILCs in mediating airway epithelial repair

In addition to playing a pathogenic role in the context of allergic airway inflammation, a recent report demonstrated that ILCs could promote beneficial tissue repair responses in the lung following acute epithelial damage. In this study, genome-wide transcriptional profiling of lung-resident ILCs from naïve mice revealed a transcriptional signature that is strongly enriched in genes that regulate wound healing pathways, including the gene encoding the epidermal growth factor (EGF) family member amphiregulin [16]. Amphiregulin has been linked to tissue remodeling and repair in diverse settings of acute epithelial injury and asthma [30,31,37,38], although the hematopoietic sources of amphiregulin are poorly defined. Remarkably, lung ILCs produced amphiregulin in response to IL-33 stimulation and amphiregulin expression was elevated in the lung following exposure to H1N1 subtype of influenza A virus, which causes substantial damage to the respiratory epithelium [39]. However, unlike infection with influenza A virus subtype H3N1 discussed above, H1N1 is not known to cause an AHR response. Further, CD90+ CD25+ ST2+ ILCs accumulated in the lung parenchyma following H1N1 infection and depletion of ILCs in influenza virus-infected Rag1−/− hosts using anti-CD90 monoclonal antibody treatment resulted in severely decreased lung function, compromised lung epithelial barrier integrity and increased host mortality, suggesting that lung ILCs are crucial regulators of lung epithelial repair and tissue remodeling [16]. Strikingly, treatment with recombinant amphiregulin, but not IL-13, effectively restored lung function and epithelial repair in ILC-depleted influenza virus-infected mice, suggesting that ILC-derived amphiregulin is one mechanism by which ILCs can promote airway epithelial repair and lung tissue homeostasis following acute lung damage (Fig 1). Amphiregulin is widely expressed throughout multiple organs [40], raising the possibility that ILC-derived amphiregulin may influence tissue homeostasis at extra-pulmonary sites. The question of whether amphiregulin is uniquely expressed by lung-resident ILCs or alternatively represents a more generalized tissue-protective effector mechanism shared by Type 2 ILCs at other tissue sites remains to be determined.

The identification of distinct roles for lung ILCs in the promotion of airway inflammation or lung epithelial repair reveals a previously unrecognized degree of functional heterogeneity within the ILC population. Although the precise mechanisms underlying the dichotomy in ILC function observed under different inflammatory conditions is not yet understood, based on current data one could speculate that the ability of Type 2 ILCs to serve either tissue-protective or pathologic functions may depend upon the extent of tissue injury, the nature of the inflammatory or infectious stimulus and/or the local cytokine milieu. In addition, the same factors that are crucial for the effective restoration of tissue homeostasis after injury, including epithelial hyperplasia, mucus secretion and collagen deposition, can be deleterious to the host if induced in the absence of tissue damage [8,30,31]. Therefore, it is conceivable that while induction of ILC-derived IL-5/IL-13 and/or amphiregulin during lung injury can have a beneficial effect by promoting tissue repair, the initiation and subsequent dysregulation of these responses in uninjured tissue can be detrimental by contributing to pathogenesis of airway inflammation. Supporting this scenario, the inflammatory stimuli that results in ILC-dependent airway inflammation (papain allergen [22,32], H3N1 influenza virus [15], IL-25 or IL-33 protein [18], OVA antigen [18] and glycolipids [17]) are not known to cause substantial injury to the respiratory tissue as is observed during H1N1 influenza virus infection in which respiratory ILCs have beneficial effects in promoting repair of virus-damaged epithelium [16]. Future studies are needed to determine whether Type 2 ILCs can also serve tissue-protective functions in other models of lung tissue damage, such as LPS or Bleomycin-induced lung injury. A similar paradigm likely also applies to the intestinal mucosa, whereby strong Type 2 ILC responses are essential for helminth clearance [9,33] but high levels of ILC-derived cytokines could also cause intestinal pathology if induced in the absence of infection-induced tissue damage. Collectively, these studies suggest that Type 2 ILC populations can have either a protective or a pathogenic effect depending in part upon the state of the tissue microenvironment and the nature of the inflammatory signal (Fig 1).

Concluding remarks

The identification of previously unrecognized populations of Type 2 ILCs in human and murine lungs has advanced our understanding of the cellular and molecular mediators of allergic airway inflammation and airway epithelial repair and may provide potential new drug targets for improved immune-therapies. However, given the ability of Type 2 ILC responses to cause either beneficial or deleterious effects in different disease settings, caution must be applied when considering the development of therapeutics that target Type 2 ILCs in human disease. Future studies are needed to further define the signals that regulate the pathogenic versus protective functions of lung ILC populations in the context of distinct infectious or inflammatory conditions in order to design effective targeted therapeutic strategies that can ameliorate allergic inflammation or improve tissue repair following injury.

Highlights

  • Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) have recently been identified in human and mouse lung.

  • Lung ILCs produce IL-5, IL-13, IL-9 and amphiregulin in response to IL-33 stimulation.

  • ILC-derived IL-13 can promote allergic airway inflammation.

  • Production of amphiregulin by lung ILCs mediates epithelial repair after lung damage.

  • Targeting lung ILCs may provide improved immuno-therapies in human diseases.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank members of the Artis lab for helpful discussions and critical reading of the manuscript. Research in the Artis lab is supported by the US National Institutes of Health (grants AI061570, AI087990, AI074878, AI095608, AI091759, AI095466 to D.A.; T32-AI007532 to L.A.M.) and the Burroughs Wellcome Fund (DA).

Footnotes

Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

References

Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as:

* of special interest

** of outstanding interest

  • 1.Spits H, Cupedo T. Innate Lymphoid Cells: Emerging Insights in Development, Lineage Relationships, and Function. Annu Rev Immunol. 2011 doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-020711-075053. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Spits H, Di Santo JP. The expanding family of innate lymphoid cells: regulators and effectors of immunity and tissue remodeling. Nat Immunol. 2011;12:21–27. doi: 10.1038/ni.1962. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Saenz SA, Noti M, Artis D. Innate immune cell populations function as initiators and effectors in Th2 cytokine responses. Trends Immunol. 2010;31:407–413. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2010.09.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Sun JC, Lanier LL. NK cell development, homeostasis and function: parallels with CD8 T cells. Nat Rev Immunol. 2011;11:645–657. doi: 10.1038/nri3044. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Mortha A, Diefenbach A. Natural killer cell receptor-expressing innate lymphocytes: more than just NK cells. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2011;68:3541–3555. doi: 10.1007/s00018-011-0803-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Koyasu S, Moro K, Tanabe M, Takeuchi T. Natural helper cells: a new player in the innate immune response against helminth infection. Adv Immunol. 2010;108:21–44. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-380995-7.00002-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Oliphant CJ, Barlow JL, McKenzie AN. Insights into the initiation of type 2 immune responses. Immunology. 2011;134:378–385. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03499.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Doherty T, Broide D. Cytokines and growth factors in airway remodeling in asthma. Curr Opin Immunol. 2007;19:676–680. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2007.07.017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Allen JE, Maizels RM. Diversity and dialogue in immunity to helminths. Nat Rev Immunol. 2011;11:375–388. doi: 10.1038/nri2992. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Moro K, Yamada T, Tanabe M, Takeuchi T, Ikawa T, Kawamoto H, Furusawa J, Ohtani M, Fujii H, Koyasu S. Innate production of T(H)2 cytokines by adipose tissue-associated c-Kit(+)Sca-1(+) lymphoid cells. Nature. 2010;463:540–544. doi: 10.1038/nature08636. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; ** Discovery of a novel IL-5- and IL-13-expressing innate cell population in fat-associated lymphoid clusters that influences B1 cell antibody production and promotes anti-parasitic immunity in the gut.
  • 11.Neill DR, Wong SH, Bellosi A, Flynn RJ, Daly M, Langford TK, Bucks C, Kane CM, Fallon PG, Pannell R, et al. Nuocytes represent a new innate effector leukocyte that mediates type-2 immunity. Nature. 2010;464:1367–1370. doi: 10.1038/nature08900. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; ** Identification of IL-25/IL-33-responsive innate immune cells that produce IL-5 and IL-13 to promote explusion of helminth worm parasites from the intestine.
  • 12.Price AE, Liang HE, Sullivan BM, Reinhardt RL, Eisley CJ, Erle DJ, Locksley RM. Systemically dispersed innate IL-13-expressing cells in type 2 immunity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107:11489–11494. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1003988107. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; ** Using IL-13 reporter mice, this study demonstrates that IL-25/IL-33-responsive, IL-13-expressing innate immune cells are widely located throughout the spleen, liver and lymph nodes and can mediate protective immunity to intestinal helminth parasite infection.
  • 13.Wong SH, Walker JA, Jolin HE, Drynan LF, Hams E, Camelo A, Barlow JL, Neill DR, Panova V, Koch U, et al. Transcription factor RORalpha is critical for nuocyte development. Nat Immunol. 2012 doi: 10.1038/ni.2208. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; * Demonstration that Type 2 ILCs arise from a common lymphoid progenitor cell in the bone marrow and are dependent upon IL-7 signaling and expression of the transcription factor RORα for development.
  • 14.Saenz SA, Siracusa MC, Perrigoue JG, Spencer SP, Urban JF, Jr., Tocker JE, Budelsky AL, Kleinschek MA, Kastelein RA, Kambayashi T, et al. IL25 elicits a multipotent progenitor cell population that promotes T(H)2 cytokine responses. Nature. 2010;464:1362–1366. doi: 10.1038/nature08901. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; ** Discovery of an IL-25-responsive progenitor cell population in the periphery that is capable of differentiation into multiple granulocyte cell populations to promote Th2 immunity against intestinal helminth parasites.
  • 15.Chang YJ, Kim HY, Albacker LA, Baumgarth N, McKenzie AN, Smith DE, Dekruyff RH, Umetsu DT. Innate lymphoid cells mediate influenza-induced airway hyper-reactivity independently of adaptive immunity. Nat Immunol. 2011;12:631–638. doi: 10.1038/ni.2045. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; ** Discovery of a Type 2 ILC population in the lung that regulates airway inflammation through an IL-13-dependent mechanism.
  • 16.Monticelli LA, Sonnenberg GF, Abt MC, Alenghat T, Ziegler CG, Doering TA, Angelosanto JM, Laidlaw BJ, Yang CY, Sathaliyawala T, et al. Innate lymphoid cells promote lung-tissue homeostasis after infection with influenza virus. Nat Immunol. 2011;12:1045–1054. doi: 10.1031/ni.2131. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; ** Identification of a lung-resident Type 2 ILC population in mouse and human lung tissue that can regulate airway epithelial repair in response to influenza virus-induced lung damage.
  • 17.Kim HY, Chang YJ, Subramanian S, Lee HH, Albacker LA, Matangkasombut P, Savage PB, McKenzie AN, Smith DE, Rottman JB, et al. Innate lymphoid cells responding to IL-33 mediate airway hyperreactivity independently of adaptive immunity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129:216–227. e211–216. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2011.10.036. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Barlow JL, Bellosi A, Hardman CS, Drynan LF, Wong SH, Cruickshank JP, McKenzie AN. Innate IL-13-producing nuocytes arise during allergic lung inflammation and contribute to airways hyperreactivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129:191–198. e194. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2011.09.041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Yasuda K, Muto T, Kawagoe T, Matsumoto M, Sasaki Y, Matsushita K, Taki Y, Futatsugi-Yumikura S, Tsutsui H, Ishii KJ, et al. Contribution of IL-33-activated type II innate lymphoid cells to pulmonary eosinophilia in intestinal nematode-infected mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 doi: 10.1073/pnas.1201042109. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Bartemes KR, Iijima K, Kobayashi T, Kephart GM, McKenzie AN, Kita H. IL-33-Responsive Lineage-CD25+CD44hi Lymphoid Cells Mediate Innate Type 2 Immunity and Allergic Inflammation in the Lungs. J Immunol. 2012;188:1503–1513. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102832. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Yang Q, Saenz SA, Zlotoff DA, Artis D, Bhandoola A. Cutting edge: Natural helper cells derive from lymphoid progenitors. J Immunol. 2011;187:5505–5509. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102039. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Halim TY, Krauss RH, Sun AC, Takei F. Lung Natural Helper Cells Are a Critical Source of Th2 Cell-Type Cytokines in Protease Allergen-Induced Airway Inflammation. Immunity. 2012 doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.12.020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Crellin NK, Trifari S, Kaplan CD, Cupedo T, Spits H. Human NKp44+IL-22+ cells and LTi-like cells constitute a stable RORC+ lineage distinct from conventional natural killer cells. J Exp Med. 2010;207:281–290. doi: 10.1084/jem.20091509. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; * Evidence that human RORc+ IL-22-producing ILCs are a separate lineage from classical NK cells.
  • 24.Crellin NK, Trifari S, Kaplan CD, Satoh-Takayama N, Di Santo JP, Spits H. Regulation of cytokine secretion in human CD127(+) LTi-like innate lymphoid cells by Toll-like receptor 2. Immunity. 2010;33:752–764. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.10.012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Cupedo T, Crellin NK, Papazian N, Rombouts EJ, Weijer K, Grogan JL, Fibbe WE, Cornelissen JJ, Spits H. Human fetal lymphoid tissue-inducer cells are interleukin 17-producing precursors to RORC+ CD127+ natural killer-like cells. Nat Immunol. 2009;10:66–74. doi: 10.1038/ni.1668. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Cella M, Fuchs A, Vermi W, Facchetti F, Otero K, Lennerz JK, Doherty JM, Mills JC, Colonna M. A human natural killer cell subset provides an innate source of IL-22 for mucosal immunity. Nature. 2009;457:722–725. doi: 10.1038/nature07537. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; * Demonstration that “NK-like” NKp44+ ILCs in human lymphoid tissue produce IL-22 that can influence epithelial cell proliferation and cytokine expression.
  • 27.Cella M, Otero K, Colonna M. Expansion of human NK-22 cells with IL-7, IL-2, and IL-1beta reveals intrinsic functional plasticity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107:10961–10966. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1005641107. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Mjosberg JM, Trifari S, Crellin NK, Peters CP, van Drunen CM, Piet B, Fokkens WJ, Cupedo T, Spits H. Human IL-25- and IL-33-responsive type 2 innate lymphoid cells are defined by expression of CRTH2 and CD161. Nat Immunol. 2011;12:1055–1062. doi: 10.1038/ni.2104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; ** Identification of Type 2 ILCs throughout fetal and adult lung, intestine and blood that are capable of producing IL-5 and IL-13.
  • 29.Broide DH. Immunologic and inflammatory mechanisms that drive asthma progression to remodeling. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;121:560–570. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2008.01.031. quiz 571–562. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Crosby LM, Waters CM. Epithelial repair mechanisms in the lung. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2010;298:L715–731. doi: 10.1152/ajplung.00361.2009. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Rock JR, Hogan BL. Epithelial Progenitor Cells in Lung Development, Maintenance, Repair, and Disease. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2011 doi: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-100109-104040. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Wilhelm C, Hirota K, Stieglitz B, Van Snick J, Tolaini M, Lahl K, Sparwasser T, Helmby H, Stockinger B. An IL-9 fate reporter demonstrates the induction of an innate IL-9 response in lung inflammation. Nat Immunol. 2011;12:1071–1077. doi: 10.1038/ni.2133. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Anthony RM, Rutitzky LI, Urban JF, Jr., Stadecker MJ, Gause WC. Protective immune mechanisms in helminth infection. Nat Rev Immunol. 2007;7:975–987. doi: 10.1038/nri2199. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Liang HE, Reinhardt RL, Bando JK, Sullivan BM, Ho IC, Locksley RM. Divergent expression patterns of IL-4 and IL-13 define unique functions in allergic immunity. Nat Immunol. 2012;13:58–66. doi: 10.1038/ni.2182. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Wilson MS, Wynn TA. Pulmonary fibrosis: pathogenesis, etiology and regulation. Mucosal Immunol. 2009;2:103–121. doi: 10.1038/mi.2008.85. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Corren J. Cytokine inhibition in severe asthma: current knowledge and future directions. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2011;17:29–33. doi: 10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283413105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Enomoto Y, Orihara K, Takamasu T, Matsuda A, Gon Y, Saito H, Ra C, Okayama Y. Tissue remodeling induced by hypersecreted epidermal growth factor and amphiregulin in the airway after an acute asthma attack. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124:913–920. e911–917. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.044. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; * Provides evidence that elevated expression of amphiregulin in the sputum of asthmatic patients may correlate with increased disease severity.
  • 38.Bierman A, Yerrapureddy A, Reddy NM, Hassoun PM, Reddy SP. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) regulates mechanical ventilation-induced lung injury in mice. Transl Res. 2008;152:265–272. doi: 10.1016/j.trsl.2008.10.004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Fukushi M, Ito T, Oka T, Kitazawa T, Miyoshi-Akiyama T, Kirikae T, Yamashita M, Kudo K. Serial Histopathological Examination of the Lungs of Mice Infected with Influenza A Virus PR8 Strain. PLoS One. 2011;6:e21207. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021207. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Busser B, Sancey L, Brambilla E, Coll JL, Hurbin A. The multiple roles of amphiregulin in human cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011;1816:119–131. doi: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2011.05.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

RESOURCES