SPECIES COMPOSITION, DISTRIBUTION, LIFE FORMS AND FOLK NOMENCLATURE OF FOREST AND COMMON LAND PLANTS OF WESTERN CHITWAN, NEPAL

Abstract

This paper enumerates 349 plant species belonging to 77 families of vascular plants collected in the winter seasons of 1996 and 2000 by the flora teams of the Population and Ecology Research Laboratory, Nepal. Of the total species, 249 species belong to dicotyledons, 87 species to monocotyledons and 13 species to pteridophytes. Among the families, dicotyledons contributed the highest number of families (55 in number) followed by monocotyledons and pteridophytes. In the study areas, species composition varies with the type of habitats in the study plots. Some species are unique in distribution. The highest unique species are contributed by common lands (87 spp.), followed by the Chitwan National Park forest (36 spp.) and Tikauli forest (32 spp.). Ageratum houstonianum Mill., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv., Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees, Saccharum spontaneum L. and Thelypteris auriculata (J. Sm.) K. Iwats are the most common species across all the research blocks. Of the listed plants, many plants have local names either in Nepalese or other tribal languages. Plants are named in different ways on the basis of habit, habitat, smell, taste, and morphological characters of the plants, which are also the basis of nomenclature in plant taxonomy.

INTRODUCTION

Plants, people and culture are very closely linked with each other and one factor affects others in any ecosystem of the world (Bhuju and Rana, 2000; Cosgriff et al., 1999; Dinerstein, 1992, Ghimire et al., 1999; Roy and Pokharel, 2000). The dependence of people on the plants of any area is affected by many biotic and environmental factors. The utilization of plants also depends on the knowledge of the people, and their choice of resources for their existence (IUCN, 1994). Therefore, people of any area are the key factors for the loss or replacement or introduction of the plant diversity from/in a particular place. To understand what, how, and when people extract/exploit the plant wealth for the benefit of the people or understanding the status of the plants and people relationship, first we have to know the kinds of flora and vegetation of a particular locality (Penitsa et al., 1994; Turner, 1997). We also have to explore how the people and environment are interacting with each other. In this context we have collected data on population and the environment to understand the reciprocal relation of people, plants and the environment at micro-level. Matthews et al. (2000) examined reciprocal relation of population and the environment in the western Chitwan. In this paper, plant specimens collected in winter seasons of 1996 and 2000 will be dealt with to highlight species diversity, life forms, distribution and folk nomenclature of plants in the selected study areas of western Chitwan.

METHODOLOGY

Plant specimens were collected from research plots located in three forests and 138 common lands of western Chitwan (Map 1). The forest plots were distributed in three natural forests and three Dalbergia sissoo plantation forests. Of the three natural forests, one forest lies in the Royal Chitwan National Park, the first national park of Nepal which is also cited in CITES list. Ten other plots were located in the savanna grassland of the same national park. The common land plots were scattered in 38 neighborhoods. The present list is prepared from the plants encountered inside the research plots of different sizes (10 × 10; 3 × 3; and 1 × 1 m²). This catalogue includes all the plant resources of the forests and common lands of western Chitwan listed in the flora forms and the specimens collected by flora teams supervisors and author himself during January-April, 1996 and January-April, 2000.

Map 1.

Flora plots in western Chitwan, Nepal

Nomenclature follows the “Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal” (Press et al., 2000), “Enumeration of the vascular plants of west Nepal” (Rajbhandari et al., 1994), “The plant book: a portable dictionary of the higher plants” (Mabberley, 1987) and “CRC world dictionary of plant names” (Quattrochhi, 2000).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Species composition analysis

This checklist includes a total of 349 species belonging to 249 genera and 77 families of vascular plants of western Chitwan. Among the taxa, dicotyledons contributed the highest number of families (55), genera (180) and species (249), followed by monocotyledons and pteridophytes (Figure 1). Earlier studies also reported the Poaceae as the most important family in Rampur condition (Dangol, 1998–1999; Dangol and Gurung, 1998: 1989). Asteraceae was reported as the largest family in the flora of Nepal (Hara et al. 1978, 1979, 1982) and Leguminosae recorded as the largest family in Morang district and adjoining areas of Nepal (Jha and Jha, 2000). This indicates that the dominance of a family varies from place to place. The Poaceae are the largest family in terms of number of genera and species, followed by Leguminosae, Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Labiatae, Rubiaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Euphorbiaceae (Table 1). The Acanthaceae, Commelinaceae, Tiliaceae, Verbenaceae and Boraginaceae also increase the diversity of species in the study areas. The families with few species are comparatively more, for example, 6 families of pteridophytes, 20 of dicotyledons and 5 of monocotyledons contributed one species each (Table 2).

Figure 1.

Floristic analysis of plants of western Chitwan

Table 1.

Families with the largest number of genera and species in the vascular flora of western Chitwan, Nepal

Families	Genera	Species
Poaceae	31	45
Leguminosae	23	39
Asteraceae	29	36
Cyperaceae	9	16
Rubiaceae	7	15
Scrophulariaceae	7	15
Labiatae	10	15
Euphorbiaceae	6	10
Acanthaceae	7	9
Commelinaceae	4	8

Table 2.

Species checklist of the plants of western Chitwan, Nepal

Family	Specific epithet	Nepali name	Life form	Distribution
Acanthaceae	Barleria cristata L.	Kuro	S	TF, RF, CL
Acanthaceae	Hemigraphis hirta (Vahl) T. Anderson		H	TF, RF
Acanthaceae	Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Hein		H	CL
Acanthaceae	Hygrophila polysperma (Roxb.) T. Anderson		H	CL
Acanthaceae	Justicia quinqueangularis Koenig.		H	CL
Acanthaceae	Justicia sp.		H	NF
Acanthaceae	Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Bankuro	H	NF
Acanthaceae	Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng.		H	RF
Acanthaceae	Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees	Runche jhar	H	TF, RF, NF, GL, CL
Amaranthaceae	Achyranthes aspera L.	Datiwan	H	TF, NF, CL
Amaranthaceae	Aerva lanata Juss.		H	NF
Amaranthaceae	Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.	Bhiringi jhar	H	CL
Anacardiaceae	Buchanania latifolia Roxb.	Bhalayo	T	TF
Anacardiaceae	Semecarpus anacardium L. f.	Bhalayo	T	TF
Apiaceae	Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	Ghodtapre	H	TF, NF, GL, CL
Apiaceae	Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.	Sano ghodtapre	H	RF, NF, CL
Apiaceae	Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC.		H	RF, CL
Apocynaceae	Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.	Chhatiwan	T	CL
Apocynaceae	Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don	Dudhkhirro	T	TF, RF
Apocynaceae	Trachelospermum lucidum (D. Don) K. Schum.	Salikal	CS	RF
Apocynaceae	Vallaris solanacea (Roth) Kuntze	Dudhe lahara	CS	TF, NF
Araceae	Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.	Pidalu	H	RF
Arecaceae	Phoenix humilis Royle ex Becc. & Hook. f.	Dhotipate/Thakal	DT	TF, RF
Asclepiadaceae	Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand	Aank	S	CL
Asteraceae	Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze		H	RF, CL.
Asteraceae	Ageratum conyzoides L.	Gandhe (Seto)	H	NF, CL
Asteraceae	Ageratum houstonianum Mill.	Gandhe (Nilo)	H	TF, RF, NF, GL, CL
Asteraceae	Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Besser	Titepati	H	NF
Asteraceae	Bidens pilosa L.	Kalo kuro	H	CL
Asteraceae	Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC.	Thulo mulapate	H	CL
Asteraceae	Blumea laciniata DC.	Thulo mulapate	H	TF, RF, GL, CL
Asteraceae	Blumea sp.	Thulo mulapate	H	RF
Asteraceae	Blumeopsis flava (DC.) Gagnep.	Torigande	H	TF, RF, CL
Asteraceae	Breea arvensis (L.) Less.	Gainda kande	H	TF, RF, CL
Asteraceae	Caesulia axillaris Roxb.	Thuk jhar	H	CL
Asteraceae	Centipeda minima (L.) A. Braun & Asch.		H	CL
Asteraceae	Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist	Mulapate	H	NF, CL
Asteraceae	Conyza leucantha (D. Don) Ludlow & R. H. Raven	Mulapate	H	NF
Asteraceae	Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.	Bhringraj	H	TF, RF, GL, CL
Asteraceae	Elephantopus scaber L.	Thinko	H	TF, RF
Asteraceae	Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.	Mulapate	H	CL
Asteraceae	Eupatorium odoratum L.	Banmara	H	TF, NF
Asteraceae	Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz & Pav.	Chitlange jhar	H	CL
Asteraceae	Gnaphalium affine D. Don	Boki jhar	H	CL
Asteraceae	Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers.	Boki jhar	H	RF, CL
Asteraceae	Gnaphalium purpureum L.	Boki jhar	H	CL
Asteraceae	Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir.		H	CL
Asteraceae	Hemistepta lyrata Bunge		H	NF
Asteraceae	Inula rubricaulis (DC.) C. B. Clarke	Kan pate	H	TF, RF
Asteraceae	Ixeris polycephala Cass.	Dudhe jhar	H	NF, CL
Asteraceae	Launaea aspleniifolia (Willd.) Hook. f.	Sano mulapate	H	TF, RF, GL, CL
Asteraceae	Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajagopala		H	CL
Asteraceae	Senecio ramosus Wall. ex DC.		H	CL
Asteraceae	Sphaeranthus indicus L.		H	GL, CL
Asteraceae	Spilanthes uliginosa Swarts	Marethi	H	CL
Asteraceae	Synedrella nodiflora Gaertn.	Pahele jhar	H	NF
Asteraceae	Tridax procumbens L.	Putali jhar	H	CL
Asteraceae	Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.	Jhurjhure	H	TF, RF, NF, CL
Asteraceae	Xanthium strumarium L.	Bhende kuro	H	TF, CL
Asteraceae	Youngia japonica (L.) DC.	Dudhe jhar	H	RF
Azollaceae	Azolla sp.	Leu	H	CL
Bombacaceae	Bombax ceiba L.	Simal	T	RF, NF, GL, CL
Boraginaceae	Bothriospermum zeylanicum (J. Jacq.) Druce		H	CL
Boraginaceae	Cynoglossum sp.		H	GL
Boraginaceae	Heliotropium strigosum Willd.	Hanthi sunde	H	CL
Boraginaceae	Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br.	Gerguj	H	GL
Boraginaceae	Ehretia laevis Roxb.	Dhatrung	T	TF, RF, NF
Burseraceae	Garuga pinnata Roxb.	Dabdabe	T	TF, RF
Campanulaceae	Campanula pallida Wall.	Ghante jhar	H	CL
Campanulaceae	Lobelia alsinoides Lam.		H	TF, CL
Campanulaceae	Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) A. DC.	Nilo tike	H	CL
Cannabaceae	Cannabis sativa L.	Ganja	H	NF, CL
Caryophyllaceae	Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Schweinf. ex Asch.		H	CL
Celastraceae	Maytenus thomsonii (Kurz.) Raju & Babu	Deri	H	RF
Chenopodiaceae	Chenopodium album L.	Bethe	H	CL
Combretaceae	Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth	Saj	T	TF, RF
Combretaceae	Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.	Barro	T	TF, RF
Combretaceae	Terminalia chebula Retz.	Harro	T	RF
Commelinaceae	Amischophacelus axillaris (L.) Rao & Kammathy		H	CL
Commelinaceae	Commelina benghalensis L.	Bankane
		Jangali kane	H	TF, RF, NF, CL
Commelinaceae	Commelina diffusa Burm. f.	Kane	H	TF
Commelinaceae	Commelina palludosa Blume	Kane	H	TF
Commelinaceae	Commelina sp.	Jangali kane	H	CL
Commelinaceae	Floscopa scandens Lour.	Simkane	H	CL
Commelinaceae	Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan	Kane	H	TF
Commelinaceae	Murdannia spirata (L.) Brueckn.	Kane	H	TF, CL
Convolvulaceae	Argyreia atropurpurea (Wall.) Raizada		HC	TF
Convolvulaceae	Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L.	Badampate jhar	H	TF, CL
Convolvulaceae	Merremia kingii Prain	Dudhe jhar	HC	TF
Convolvulaceae	Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hallier f.		HT	NF
Cornaceae	Swida oblonga (Wall.) Sojak	Latikath	T	TF, RF
Cucurbitaceae	Momordica charantia L.	Ban kareli	HC	NF
Cucurbitaceae	Solena heterophylla Lour.	Gol kankari	HC	TF, RF
Cyperaceae	Carex inanis C. B. Clarke	Mothe	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Cyperus compressus L.	Mothe	H	TF
Cyperaceae	Cyperus haspan L.	Mothe	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Cyperus iria L.	Chhate mothe	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Cyperus rotundus L.	Mothe	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Cyperus sp.	Mothe	H	TF, RF, NF, CL
Cyperaceae	Eleocharis pellucida Presl	Jwane jhar	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl	Mothe	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Kunth		H	CL
Cyperaceae	Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb.	Dalle mothe	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Mariscus aristatus (Rottb.) T. Tang & F. T. Wang	Sano mothe	H	TF
Cyperaceae	Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) T. Koyama		H	TF, RF
Cyperaceae	Pycreus flavidus (Retz.) T. Koyama	Chiure mothe	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Schoenoplectus juncoides (Roxb.) Palla	Suire jhar	H	CL
Cyperaceae	Scleria alta Boeck		H	TF
Cyperaceae	Scleria parvula Steud.		H	TF
Dilleniaceae	Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.	Tantari	T	TF, RF
Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea bulbifera L.	Ban tarul	CH	TF, RF
Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb.	Bantarul	CH	TF, RF
Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook. f.	Bantarul	CH	RF
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea robusta Gaertn.	Sal	T	TF, RF
Dryoptericaceae	Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. ex Shrad.	Neuro	H	RF
Dryoptericaceae	Tectaria macrodonta (Fee) C. Chr.	Kali neuro	H	RF
Equisetaceae	Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher	Hadjorni/Ankhle jhar	H	RF, NF, GL, CL
Eriocaulaceae	Eriocaulon cinereum R. Br.	Buche jhar	H	TF
Euphorbiaceae	Aporusa octandra (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don)
	A. R. Vickery ex M. J. Short & A. R. Vickery	Archal	S/T	TF, RF
Euphorbiaceae	Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng.	Gayo/Lahare gayo	T	RF
Euphorbiaceae	Euphorbia hirta L.	Dudhe jhar	H	TF, CL
Euphorbiaceae	Euphorbia parviflora L.	Sano dudhe jhar	H	CL
Euphorbiaceae	Euphorbia prostrata Aiton	Sano dudhe jhar	H	CL
Euphorbiaceae	Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.	Sindure	T	RF
Euphorbiaceae	Phyllanthus emblica L.	Amala	T	RF
Euphorbiaceae	Phyllanthus glaucas Wall. ex Muell.-Arg.		S	GL
Euphorbiaceae	Phyllanthus urinaria L.	Bhuiamala	H	TF, RF, CL
Euphorbiaceae	Phyllanthus virgatus G. Forst.	Amala jhar	H	CL
Euphorbiaceae	Trewia nudiflora L.	Vellar	T	TF, RF, NF, CL
Gentianaceae	Canscora decussata (Roxb.) Schult. & Schult. f.	Seto phule jhar	H	TF
Juncaceae	Juncus prismatocarpus R. Br.	Gund	H	CL
Labiatae	Acrocephalus indicus (Burm. f.) Kuntze	Lerui jhangi (D)	H	TF, CL
Labiatae	Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze		H	TF, NF
Labiatae	Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.	Dhurseli	S	RF, NF
Labiatae	Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.	Jangali silam	H	TF, CL
Labiatae	Isodon coetsa (Buch.-Ham. Ex D. Don) Kudo		H	NF
Labiatae	Isodon ternifolia (D. Don)	Bhimsenpati jhar	S	RF
Labiatae	Leucas cephalotes (Rottb.) Spreng.	Gumpate	H	CL
Labiatae	Leucas indicus (L.) R. Br. Ex Vatke (L. lavandulaefolia Smith)	Gumpate	H	RF
Labiatae	Leucas mollissima Wall. ex Benth.	Gumpate	H	NF
Labiatae	Leucas plukenetii (Roth) Spreng.	Gumpate	H	CL
Labiatae	Mosla dianthera (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Maxim.		H	RF
Labiatae	Ocimum basilicum L.	Babari	H	TF, NF
Labiatae	Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm.f.) Hassk.	Rudilo	H	RF, NF, CL
Labiatae	Salvia plebeia R. Br.		H	RF, GL, CL
Lauraceae	Litsea chartacea (Wall. ex Nees) Hook. f.		T	NF
Lauraceae	Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers.	Kutmiro	T	TF, RF, GL, CL
Lecythidaceae	Careya arborea Roxb.	Kumbhi	T	TF, RF
Leeaceae	Leea crispa Royen ex L.	Guithe Padari
		Padari	S	TF, RF
Leeaceae	Leea macrophylla Roxb. ex Hornem.	Galeni	S	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd.	Khayer	T	RF
Leguminosae	Acacia pennata (L.) Willd.	Ararikanda	CS	TF, NF
Leguminosae	Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.		H	CL
Leguminosae	Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth.	Bangahat	H	TF
Leguminosae	Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.	Amili	T	RF
Leguminosae	Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.	Bhorla	WC	TF
Leguminosae	Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze	Palans	T	RF
Leguminosae	Cassia fistula L.	Rajbrikchhya	T	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Cassia occidentalis L.	Bhaise tapre	H/S	TF, CL
Leguminosae	Cassia tora L.	Tapre jhar	H	TF, CL
Leguminosae	Codariocalyx motorius (Houttuyn) Ohashi		S	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Crotalaria pallida Ait.		H	RF, GL
Leguminosae	Crotalaria prostrata Rottb. ex Willd.	Chhinchhine baja/Chepte kuro/Bilhul	H	TF, GL, CL
Leguminosae	Crotalaria sessiliflora L.	Chhinchhine baja	H	GL
Leguminosae	Crotalaria sp.	Boksi ghanger	H	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Crotalaria sp.	Chhippi	H	GL
Leguminosae	Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.	Satisal	T	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC.	Sisau	T	NF
Leguminosae	Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC.	Bhattamase jhar	S	RF, GL, CL
Leguminosae	Desmodium laxiflorum DC.		S	RF, GL, CL
Leguminosae	Desmodium oojeinense (Roxb.) H. Ohashi	Sandan	T	TF
Leguminosae	Desmodium podocarpon (Poir.) DC.		H	TF
Leguminosae	Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.	Chariamiliki mausi	H	TF, RF, GL, CL
Leguminosae	Desmodium volutinum (Willd.) DC.		S	RF
Leguminosae	Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr.	Bhattamasi
		Tinpate ghans	S	TF, RF, GL
Leguminosae	Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W. T. Aiton	Bhatmas jhar	S	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Indigofera linifolia (L. f.) Retz.		H	CL
Leguminosae	Indigofera pulchella Roxb.	Sagino	S	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Lens culinaris Medikus	Musuro	H	CL
Leguminosae	Medicago lupulina L.	Jhuppe pyauli	H	CL
Leguminosae	Millettia extensa (Benth.) Baker	Gaujo	WC	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Mimosa pudica L.	Lajabati	H/S	CL
Leguminosae	Phaseolus mungo L.	Ban masyang	HC	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv.	Kanni jhangi	S	TF, GL
Leguminosae	Smithia sensitiva Ait.	Lajaune jhar	H	TF, RF, CL
Leguminosae	Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb.) Kuntze	Debre lahara, Madane, Sal lahara,	WC	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) Ohashi	Jhumke lahara, Suruwale jhar	S	TF
Leguminosae	Uraria lagapodioides (L.) Desv.		S	TF, RF, CL
Leguminosae	Uraria lagopus DC.	Nilo tanki	S	TF, RF
Leguminosae	Vicia angustifolia L.	Kutlikosa	H	CL
Leguminosae	Vicia tetrasperma Moench.	Aankura	H	TF, CL
Liliaceae	Asparagus racemosus Willd.	Kurilo	H	RF
Liliaceae	Chlorophytum nepalense (Lindl.) Baker	Pyaje	H	TF
Liliaceae	Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D. Don	Kukur daino	CS	TF, RF
Lythraceae	Ammannia baccifera L.		H	RF
Lythraceae	Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.	Botdhairo	T	TF, RF
Lythraceae	Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne	Belauti jhar	H	TF, CL
Lythraceae	Rotala rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Koehne	Ambapate jhar	H	CL
Malvaceae	Kydia calycina Roxb.	Kubindo	S	TF, RF
Malvaceae	Sida rhombifolia L.	Balu	H/S	TF, RF, NF, CL
Malvaceae	Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. et Gibs.	Ban kapas	S	TF, NF
Malvaceae	Urena lobata L.	Balu/Chhipi, Bhendichirchut	H	TF, NF, CL
Marsileaceae	Marsilea crenata Presl	Charpate jhar	H	CL
Melastomataceae	Osbeckia stellata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Angeri	S	TF
Meliaceae	Azadirachta indica A. Juss.	Nim	T	NF, CL
Meliaceae	Melia azedarach L.	Bakaino	T	NF, CL
Menispermaceae	Cissampelos pareira L.	Batulpate	HC	TF, RF, NF
Menispermaceae	Stephania elegans Hook. f. & Thomson	Batulpate	HC	RF, NF, CL
Menispermaceae	Stephania japonica var. discolor (Miq.) Forman	Batulpate	HC	TF, GL
Menispermaceae	Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.	Gudargano	HC	NF
Myrsinaceae	Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Bilaune	S	TF, RF
Myrsinaceae	Myrsine semiserrata Wall.	Kalikath (Karauta)	S/T	TF, NF
Myrsinaceae	Myrsine sp.	Damai kath	T	TF, RF, NF
Myrtaceae	Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr. & Perry	Kyamun	T	TF, RF, GL
Myrtaceae	Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels	Jamun	T	TF, RF, CL
Onagraceae	Ludwigia perennis L.	Lwang jhar	H	TF, CL
Ophioglossaceae	Ophioglosum petiolatum Hook.	Jibre sag	H	TF, RF, NF,
Orchidaceae	Eulophia herbacea Lindl.		H	CL
Orchidaceae	Zeuxine flava (Lindl.) Trimen		H	NF, CL
Orchidaceae	Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schlechter		H	CL
Oxalidaceae	Oxalis corniculata L.	Chariamili	H	TF, RF, NF, CL
Piperaceae	Piper longum L.	Pipla	HC	TF, RF, NF, CL
Poaceae	Apluda mutica L.		H	RF, NF
Poaceae	Arundinella benghalensis (Spreng.) Druce		H	CL
Poaceae	Axonopus compressus (Swartz) P. Beauv.	Makai banso/Thulo banso	H	TF, CL
Poaceae	Bothriochloa glabra (Roxb.) A. Camus		H	TF, RF
Poaceae	Bothriochloa intermedia (R. Br.) A. Camus		H	TF
Poaceae	Brachiaria distachya (L.) Stapf	Banso	H	TF, CL
Poaceae	Brachiaria miliiformis (Presl & C. Presl) A. Chase	Banso	H	TF
Poaceae	Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf	Banso	H	CL
Poaceae	Brachiaria spp.	Banso	H	TF, RF, NF, CL
Poaceae	Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca		H	RF
Poaceae	Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.	Kuro ghans	H	TF, NF, CL
Poaceae	Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult.		H	CL
Poaceae	Cymbopogon osmastonii R. N. Parker		H	GL
Poaceae	Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.	Dubo	H	TF, RF, NF, GL, CL
Poaceae	Desmostachys bipinnata (L.) Stapf	Kush	H	TF, RF, GL, CL
Poaceae	Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf	Jhuse ankhle jhar	H	CL
Poaceae	Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler	Chitre banso	H	TF, NF
Poaceae	Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers.	Chitre banso	H	CL
Poaceae	Digitaria spp.	Chitre banso	H	CL
Poaceae	Echinochloa colona (L.) Link	Sama ghans	H	TF, CL
Poaceae	Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.	Kode jhar	H	TF, CL
Poaceae	Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.) Trin ex Steudel	Banso	H	CL
Poaceae	Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauvois ex Roem. & Schultes	Junge banso	H	TF, NF, GL, CL
Poaceae	Eragrostris unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steudel	Chiure banso	H	TF, NF, CL
Poaceae	Hemarthria compressa (L. f.) R. Br.	Ghode dubo	H	TF, RF, GL, CL
Poaceae	Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv.	Siru	H	TF, RF, NF, GL, CL
Poaceae	Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze		H	CL
Poaceae	Ischaemum rugosum Salisb.	Madilo	H	CL
Poaceae	Leersia hexandra Swartz	Karaute ghans	H	CL
Poaceae	Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv.	Ote banso	H	TF, RF, CL
Poaceae	Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv.	Ote banso	H	TF, NF
Poaceae	Panicum notatum Retz.		H	RF
Poaceae	Paspalum distichum L.	Mane banso	H	TF
Poaceae	Paspalum scrobiculatum L.	Mane banso	H	TF, RF, NF, CL
Poaceae	Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steudel	Masino narkat	H	RF, GL, CL
Poaceae	Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth	Khari banso	H	TF, CL
Poaceae	Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf.	Puchhre jhar	H	CL
Poaceae	Pseudopogonatherum contortum (Brongn.) A. Camus		H	TF, RF
Poaceae	Saccharum benghalense Retz.	Worela	H	RF, GL
Poaceae	Saccharum spontaneum L.	Kans; Th: Jhaksi	H	TF, RF, NF, GL, CL
Poaceae	Sacciolepis indica (L.) A. Chase		H	TF, CL
Poaceae	Sacciolepis myosuroides (R. Br.) A. Camus		H	TF
Poaceae	Setaria pallide-fusca (Schumach.) Stapf & C. E. Hubbard	Bale banso/Jhusile banso	H	TF, CL
Poaceae	Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv.		H	CL
Poaceae	Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.) Ridley	Khadahi	H	TF, RF, GL
Polygalaceae	Polygala sp.		H	CL
Polygonaceae	Polygonum barbatum L.	Pire bikh	H	NF, CL
Polygonaceae	Polygonum hydropiper L.	Pire jhar	H	TF
Polygonaceae	Polygonum lanigerum R. Br.	Pire bish	H	CL
Polygonaceae	Polygonum plebeium R. Br.	Sukul jhar	H	TF, RF, CL
Pontederiaceae	Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms	Jaluki	H	CL
Primulaceae	Anagallis arvensis L.	Krishnanil	H	CL
Primulaceae	Androsace umbellata (Lour.) Merr.	Chhate primula	H	NF, CL
Pteridaceae	Adiantum caudatum L.	Rani sinka	H	RF
Pteridaceae	Adiantum lunalatum Buru	Rani sinka	H	RF
Pteridaceae	Pteris biaurita L.		H	RF, CL
Pteridaceae	Pteris incisa Thunb.		H	NF
Rhamnaceae	Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.	Bayer	T	GL
Rhamnaceae	Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.	Jangali bayer	S	TF, RF
Rhamnaceae	Zizyphus rugosa Lam.	Dumarai	T	TF
Rosaceae	Fragaria indica Andr.	Bhuin kafal	H	NF
Rosaceae	Potentilla supina L.	Jangali bajradanti, Dhaniya pate	H	RF, CL
Rubiaceae	Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich. ex Walp.	Karam	T	RF
Rubiaceae	Borreria alata (Aubl.) DC.		H	CL
Rubiaceae	Borreria articularis (L.f.) F. N. Williams		H	TF, RF, CL
Rubiaceae	Borreria pusilla (Wall.) DC.		H	TF, CL
Rubiaceae	Borreria repens DC.		H	CL
Rubiaceae	Coffea benghalensis Heyne ex Roem et Schult		S	NF
Rubiaceae	Hedyotis brachypoda (A. P. de Candolle) V. P. Sivarajan		H	TF
Rubiaceae	Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam.		H	TF, CL
Rubiaceae	Hedyotis diffusa Willd.		H	TF, CL
Rubiaceae	Hedyotis gracilis Hook. f.		H	CL
Rubiaceae	Hedyotis lineata Roxb.		H	TF
Rubiaceae	Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth.	Kaim	T	RF
Rubiaceae	Wendlandia puberula DC.	Kainyo	T	TF
Rubiaceae	Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay	Mainkanda	S	TF, RF, NF, GL
Rubiaceae	Xeromphis uliginosa (Retz.) Maheshwari	Pidar	T	RF
Rutaceae	Clausena pentaphylla DC.		S	TF, RF
Rutaceae	Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.	Asare	S	TF, RF, NF, GL
Rutaceae	Skimmia arborescens T. Anderson ex Gamble	Asare	S	TF, RF
Sapindaceae	Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken	Kusum	T	TF, RF
Schizaeaceae	Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.	Janai lahara	HC	TF, RF
Scrophulariaceae	Bacopa hamiltoniana (Benth.) Wettst.		H	RF
Scrophulariaceae	Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell		H	TF
Scrophulariaceae	Lindernia anagallis (Burm. f.) Pennell		H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston		H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell	Karaute jhar	H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell.		H	TF, CL
Scrophulariaceae	Lindernia oppositifolia (L.) Mukerjee		H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines		H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Lindernia pusilla (Willd.) Bold.		H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Lindernia sp.		H	GL
Scrophulariaceae	Mazus pumilus (Burm. f.) Steenis		H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small		H	RF, GL, CL
Scrophulariaceae	Scoparia dulcis L.	Chini jhar	H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke		H	CL
Scrophulariaceae	Veronica anagallis-aquatica L.	Dhape jhar	H	CL
Selaginellaceae	Selaginella ciliaris (Retz.) Spring		H	TF, RF
Solanaceae	Physalis divaricata D. Don	Patpate	H	NF, CL
Solanaceae	Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq.	Kantakari	H	NF
Solanaceae	Solanum torvum Sw.	Thulo bihid	H	NF
Solanaceae	Solanum Virginianum L.	Kantakari	H	RF, NF. GL, CL
Sterculiaceae	Helicteres isora L.	Simthi	S	TF, RF
Sterculiaceae	Melochia corchorifolia L.	Bankuro	H	CL
Sterculiaceae	Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd.	Singane	T	RF
Tamaricaceae	Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth.	Jheuwa	S/T	RF, CL
Theaceae	Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth	Chilaune	T	TF
Thelypteridaceae	Thelypteris auriculata (J. Sm.) K. Iwats.	Bishkoche	H	TF, RF, NF, GL, CL
Tiliaceae	Corchorus aestuans L.	Ban pat	H	TF, CL
Tiliaceae	Grewia disperma Rottb.		S	RF
Tiliaceae	Grewia helicterifolia Wall. ex G. Don	Kharbuja	H	TF, RF
Tiliaceae	Grewia sapida Roxb. Ex DC.	Pharsa	S	TF, RF, GL
Tiliaceae	Grewia subinaequalis DC.	Dafer	T	TF, RF
Tiliaceae	Triumfetta rhomboides Jacq.	Dalle kuro	H	CL
Typhaceae	Typha angustifolia L.	Pater	H	RF, GL, CL
Urticaceae	Gonostegia pentandra (Roxb.) Miq.	Sim chiple jhar	H	GL, CL
Urticaceae	Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) J. Bennett & R. Br.	Chiple jhar	H	RF, CL
Verbenaceae	Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl	Dhaichamla	S	RF
Verbenaceae	Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.	Bhanthi	S	TF, RF, NF, CL
Verbenaceae	Gmelina arborea Roxb.	Khamari	T	RF
Verbenaceae	Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene	Bhuin okra	H	TF, RF, GL, CL
Verbenaceae	Premna integrifolia L.	Gindari	T	TF, NF
Verbenaceae	Vitex negundo L.	Simali	S	CL
Vitaceae	Cissus repens Lam.	Charchare lahara	S	TF, NF
Vitaceae	Tetrastigma dubium (M. A. Lawson) Planch.		HC	RF
Zingiberaceae	Alpinia sp.		H	RF
Zingiberaceae	Costus speciosus (J. Koenig) Smith	Bet lauri	H	TF

TF=Tikauli forest, RF= Royal Chitwan National Park Forest, NF=Forests along Narayani river, GL= Grasslands of National Park Forest, and CL= common landa

The largest genera are listed in Table 3. Lindernia and Desmodium are the two largest genera, with 8 and 6 species, respectively. Crotalaria, Cyperus and Hedyotis represent 3 species each. One hundred ninety-four genera had only one species each. The largest genera of the present study such as Lindernia and Cyperus were also reported among the top 5 genera in the aquatic flora of the plains of eastern Nepal (Siwakoti and Varma, 1998).

Table 3.

Genera with 3 to more number of species in the vascular flora of western Chitwan, Nepal

Genera	Total species
Lindernia All., Scrophulariaceae	8
Desmodium Desv., Leguminosae	6
Crotalaria L., Leguminosae	5
Cyperus L., Cyperaceae	5
Hedyotis L., Rubiaceae	5
Borreria G. Meyer, Rubiaceae	4
Brachiaria Griseb., Poaceae	4
Commelina L., Commelinaceae	4
Grewia L., Tiliaceae	4
Leucas R. Br., Labiatae	4
Phyllanthus L., Euphorbiaceae	4
Polygonum L., Polygonaceae	4
Blumea DC., Asteraceae	3
Cassia L., Leguminosae	3
Digitaria Heister ex Fabr., Poaceae	3
Dioscorea L., Dioscoreaceae	3
Eragrostis Wolf, Poaceae	3
Euphorbia L., Euphorbiaceae	3
Gnaphalium L., Asteraceae	3
Solanum L., Solanaceae	3
Terminalia L., Combretaceae	3
Zizyphus Mill., Rhamnaceae	3

Species distribution

The composition of species varies with the land types of the study plots. Some species are shared between two or more plots and others are unique (Table 4). The highest unique species are found in the common lands (87 spp.), followed by the Royal Chitwan National Park forest (36 spp.) and the Tikauli forest (32 spp.). The Tikauli forest and The National Park Forest (Table 4) shared 44 species (12.607%) followed by the Tikauli forest and the common land forest (24 species). Ageratum houstonianum Mill., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv., Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees, Saccharum spontaneum L. and Thelypteris auriculata (J. Sm.) K. Iwats are common species distributed in all the five blocks (Table 2, 4). Above species were also reported as common species in Ramput condition (Dangol, 1989–1999).

Table 4.

Number of species unique or common to different research blocks in western Chitwan, Nepal

Single block		Two blocks		Three blocks		Four blocks		Five blocks
Sites	No.	Sites	No.	Sites	No.	Sites	No.	Sites	No.
CL	87	GL+CL	2	RF+GL+CL	6	RF+NF+GL+CL	3	TF+RF+NF+GL+CL	6
GL	8	NF+CL	10	RF+NF+CL	3	TF+NF+GL+CL	2
NF	19	RF+CL	7	TF+GL+CL	1	TF+RF+GL+CL	8
RF	36	RF+GL	2	TF+NF+CL	4	TF+RF+NF+CL	10
TF	32	RF+NF	2	TF+RF+CL	10	TF+RF+NF+GL	2
		TF+CL	24	TF+RF+GL	4
		TF+GL	2	TF+RF+NF	4
		TF+NF	11
		TF+RF	44
Total	182		104		32		25		6
%	52.15		29.79		9.17		7.16		1.72

CL= Common lands, GL= Grasslands (national park); NF= Narayani river forest; RF= National park forest; and TF= Tikauli (Barandabar) forest

Life forms

In the study areas, the most prominent life form is herbs (239 spp.) followed by trees (46 spp.), shrubs (35 spp.), climbing herbs (15 spp.), and climbing shrub (4 spp.) (Table 2). The dominance of herns was also reported by Jha and Jha (2000) in the flora of Morang district and adjoining areas of Nepal. Herbs are the main component of the common lands, grasslands and ground flora of the forest vegetation. The herbaceous vegetation in the grasslands are represented by tall grasses like Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.) Ridley, Saccharum benghalense Retz., Saccharum spontaneum L. and Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv., Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb.) Kuntze, Millettia extensa (Benth.) Baker and Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. are three woody climbers of the forests of the western Chitwan. Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hallier f. is a herbaceous trailer that was recorded in the Tikauli forest.

Folk nomenclature of plants

Of the listed plants, many plants have local names either in Nepalese or other tribal languages (Table 2). The plants with less economic value generally lack local names. For instance, the small plants like Androsace umbellate (Lour.) Merr., Canscorea decussata (Roxb.) Schult. & R.S. Schult. f., Hemigraphis hirta (Vahl) T. Anderson, etc. do not have vernacular names. Plants are named in different ways on the basis of habit, habitat, smell, test, and morphological characters, which are also the basis of nomenclature in plant taxonomy.

The local names are given on the basis of structure, color, smell, etc. The Nepalese call “Tinpate” for the plants that possess three leaves and refer to the generas such as Flemingia, Uraria, and Desmodium of the Leguminosae family. Similarly, “Gandhe” meaning a bad or unpleasant smell, stands for the plants (Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit., Ageratum conyzoides L., Ageratum houstonianum Merr.). In Nepali, “Chariamili” stands for three species: Oxalis corniculata L., O. corymbosa DC. and O. latifolia Humb. The local name “Boki jhar”, meaning goat weed, is given to Gnaphalium purpureum L., Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers. and Gnaphalium affine D. Don distributed in tropical and subtropical areas of Nepal. The “lahara” is given to the climbering plants. For instance, the woody climber, Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb.) Kuntze, known by “Debre lahara”, has the habit or characteristic of climbing up to the left. “Debre” means left in Nepali. “Sal lahara” is the name given to the woody climber Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb.) Kuntze, plant that climbs on “Sal” (Shorea robusta Gaertn.). Some of the authors searched the m eaning of local names for the plants and found simiar naming systems based on smell, habit, habitats, color of flower (Dangol, 2002–2003; Pohle, 1990; Sacherer, 1997). The local names for plants may create confusion when one local name stands for more than two types (species) of plants or when one plant has more than one local name. In such cases, those who need the botanical name should consult experts or authentic herbarium specimens for proper identifiction.

CONCLUSIONS

This species list includes only those plant species, which were encountered in or near the research plots in western Chitwan. These plot locations were designed to represent the diversity of land types in the region. For the taxonomic purposes, it is necessary to collect plant specimens from different locations of the entire district. These collections will allow us to recognize plant species correctly and follow changes in flora diversity and study how they are related to population change. Comprehensive interdisciplinary studies on plants and population are recommended to explore the reciprocal relations between population and the environment. Collaborations such as these between botanists and social scientists will help us better understand the connection between plants, people and culture.