Abstract
An electronic nose (EN) device was used to detect microbial and viral contaminations in a variety of animal cell culture systems. The emission of volatile components from the cultures accumulated in the bioreactor headspace, was sampled and subsequently analysed by the EN device. The EN, which was equipped with an array of 17 chemical gas sensors of varying selectivity towards the sampled volatile molecules, generated response patterns of up to 85 computed signals. Each 15 or 20 min a new gas sample was taken generating a new response pattern. A software evaluation tool visualised the data mainly by using principal component analysis. The EN was first used to detect microbial contaminations in a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line producing a recombinant human macrophage colony stimulating factor (rhM-CSF). The CHO cell culture was contaminated by Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida utilis which all were detected. The response patterns from the CHO cell culture were compared with monoculture references of the microorganisms. Second, contaminations were studied in an Sf-9 insect cell culture producing another recombinant protein (VP2 protein). Contaminants were detected from E. coli, a filamentous fungus and a baculovirus. Third, contamination of a human cell line, HEK-293, infected with E. coli exhibited comparable results. Fourth, bacterial contaminations could also be detected in cultures of a MLV vector producer cell line. Based on the overall experiences in this study it is concluded that the EN method has in a number of cases the potential to be developed into a useful on-line contamination alarm in order to support safety and economical operation for industrial cultivation.
Keywords: CHO, Contamination, Electronic nose, HEK293, PG13 GFP clone, Sf-9
Full Text
The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (754.5 KB).
References
- Bachinger T., Mandenius C.-F. Searching for information in the aroma of cell cultures. Trends Biotechnol. 2000;18:494–500. doi: 10.1016/S0167-7799(00)01512-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bachinger T., Riese U., Eriksson R., Mandenius C.-F. Monitoring cellular state transitions in a production-scale CHO-cell process using an electronic nose. J. Biotechnol. 2000a;76:61–71. doi: 10.1016/S0168-1656(99)00179-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bachinger T., Riese U., Eriksson R., Mandenius C.-F. Electronic nose for estimation of product concentration in mammalian cell cultivation. Bioproc. Eng. 2000b;23(6):637–642. doi: 10.1007/s004490000213. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Bachinger T., Riese U., Eriksson R., Mandenius C.-F. Gas sensor arrays for early detection of infection in mammalian cell culture. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2002;17:395–403. doi: 10.1016/S0956-5663(01)00315-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bishop C.M. Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press; 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Boulton-Stone J.M., Blake J.R. Bursting bubbles at a free surface. In: Nienow A.W., editor. 3rd International Conference of Bioreactor Bioprocess Fluid Dynamics. London: MEP Ltd.; 1993. pp. 163–174. [Google Scholar]
- Brereton R.G. Chemometrics, Data Analysis for the Laboratory and Chemical Plant. ChichesterUnited Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.; 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Casal J.I. Parvovirus diagnostic and vaccine production in insect cells. Cytotechnology. 1996;20:261–270. doi: 10.1007/BF00350405. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cimander C., Bachinger T., Mandenius C.-F. Assessment of the performance of a fed-batch cultivation from the preculture quality using an electronic nose. Biotechnol. Prog. 2002;18:380–386. doi: 10.1021/bp010166j. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chalmers J.J., Bavarian F. Microscopic visualization of insect cell–bubble interactions. II: the bubble film and bubble rupture. Biotechnol. Prog. 1992;7:151–158. doi: 10.1021/bp00008a010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Côté J., Bourget L., Garnier A., Kamen A. Study of adenovirus production in serum free 293SF suspension culture by GFP-expression monitoring. Biotechnol. Prog. 1997;13:709–714. doi: 10.1021/bp970110i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cruz P.E., , Moreira J.L., Carrondo M.J.T. Insect cell growth evaluation during serum-free adaptation in stirred suspension cultures. Biotechnol. Tech. 1997;11:117–120. doi: 10.1023/B:BITE.0000034015.83434.66. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Dickinson T.A., et al. Current trends in ‘artificial-nose’ technology. Trends Biotechnol. 1998;16:250–258. doi: 10.1016/S0167-7799(98)01185-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gardner J.W. and Bartlett P.N. (eds.), 1999. Electronic Noses: Principles and Applications. Oxford University Press.
- Gardner J.W., Craven M., Dow C., Hines E. The prediction of bacteria type and culture growth phase by an electronic nose with a multi-layer perceptron network. Meas. Sci. Technol. 1998;9:120–127. doi: 10.1088/0957-0233/9/1/016. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Garnier A., Cote J., Nadeau I., Kamen A., Massie B. Scale-up of the adenovirus expression system for the production of recombinant protein in human 293S cells. Cytotechnology. 1994;15:145–155. doi: 10.1007/BF00762389. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Geladi P., Kowalski B.R. Partial least-squares regression: a tutorial. Anal. Chim. Acta. 1986;185:1–17. [Google Scholar]
- Gibson T., Prosser O., Hulbert J., Marshall R., Corcoran P., Lowery P., Ruck-Keene E., Heron S. Detection and simultaneous identification of microorganisms from headspace samples using an electronic nose. Sens. Actuators B. 1997;44:413–422. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(97)00235-9. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Hines E.L., et al. Electronic noses: a review of signal processing techniques. IEEE Proc. Circuits Devices Syst. 1999;146:297–310. [Google Scholar]
- Kress-Rogers E. (eds.), 1997. Handbook of Biosensors and Electronic Noses: MedicineFood and the Environment. CRC Press.
- Merten O.-W., Cruz P.E., Rochette C., Gény-Fiamma C., Bouquet C., Gonçalves D., Danos O., Carrondo M.J.T. Comparison of different bioreactor systems for the production of high titer retroviral vectors. Biotechnol. Prog. 2001;17:326–335. doi: 10.1021/bp000162z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Miller A.D., Garcia J.V., Suhr N., Lynch C.M., Wilson C., Eiden M.V. Construction and properties of retovirus packaging cells based on Gibbon Ape Leukemia Virus. J. Virol. 1991;65:2220–2224. doi: 10.1128/jvi.65.5.2220-2224.1991. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Oh S.K., Nienow A.W., Al-Rubeai M., Emery A.N. Further studies of the culture of mouse hybridomas in an agitated bioreactor with and without continuous sparging. J. Biotechnol. 1992;22:245–270. doi: 10.1016/0168-1656(92)90144-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wagner R., Lehmann J. The growth and productivity of recombinant animal cells in a bubble-free aeration system. Trends Biotechnol. 1988;6:101–104. doi: 10.1016/0167-7799(88)90066-2. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Wold S. Principal component analysis. Chemometr. Intellig. Lab. Sys. 1987;2:37–52. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang Z., Thomas C.R. Modelling of animal cell damage in turbulent flows. In: Nienow A.W., editor. 3rd International Conference of Bioreactor Bioprocess Fluid Dynamics. London: MEP Ltd.; 1993. pp. 475–482. [Google Scholar]