Skip to main content
PLOS ONE logoLink to PLOS ONE
. 2013 Jul 5;8(7):e68220. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068220

Effects of Shading on Starch Pasting Characteristics of Indica Hybrid Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Li Wang 1,#, Fei Deng 1,#, Wan-Jun Ren 1,*, Wen-Yu Yang 1
Editor: Mingliang Xu2
PMCID: PMC3702574  PMID: 23861872

Abstract

Rice is an important staple crop throughout the world, but environmental stress like low-light conditions can negatively impact crop yield and quality. Using pot experiments and field experiments, we studied the effects of shading on starch pasting viscosity and starch content with six rice varieties for three years, using the Rapid Visco Analyser to measure starch pasting viscosity. Shading at different growth stages and in different rice varieties all affected the starch pasting characteristics of rice. The effects of shading on starch pasting viscosity at middle and later growth stages were greater than those at earlier stages. Shading enhanced breakdown but reduced hold viscosity and setback at tillering-elongation stage. Most pasting parameters changed significantly with shading after elongation stage. Furthermore, the responses of different varieties to shading differed markedly. The change scope of starch pasting viscosity in Dexiang 4103 was rather small after heading, while that in IIyou 498 and Gangyou 906 was small before heading. We observed clear tendencies in peak viscosity, breakdown, and pasting temperature of the five rice varieties with shading in 2010 and 2011. Correlation analysis indicated that the rice amylose content was negatively correlated with breakdown, but was positively correlated with setback. Based on our results, IIyou 498, Gangyou 906, and Dexiang 4103 had higher shade endurance, making these varieties most suitable for high-quality rice cultivation in low-light regions.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food for over half of the global population [1] and for about 60% of the population in China [2]. Furthermore, more than 90% of the world’s rice is produced in Asian countries like China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Viet Nam [3]. However, crop production is affected by environmental stresses, such as heat, drought, salt, and shading. Rice, as a photophilous crop, often encounters low-light stress during the growth stage, particularly in Sichuan, China; the Sichuan Basin receives fewer than 1200 hours of sunshine annually, and only 3345 MJ m−2 y−1 of annual solar radiation [4].

Light intensity is one of the most important requirements for plant growth, affecting growth, development, survival, and crop productivity. Because of the difficulty of controlling light intensity [5], researchers have evaluated the effects of shading on morphological characteristics, physiological characteristics, yield, and quality of agricultural crops. Multiple studies [6], [7], [8], [9] have shown that the morphological changes resulting from shading included increases in leaf width, length, and area index, and decreases in leaf thickness due to the reduction of palisade layer number, palisade cells, and spongy parenchyma length. Shading also increased thylakoid number in grana and stroma, but reduced trichome density, plastoglobuli, and stomata number [6]. Under the shading treatment applied, the peduncle internode length and plant height increased [7], [10]. Shading generally reduced tiller number and delayed tiller appearance and growing period [11], [12].

In plant photosynthesis, chlorophyll is the most important photosynthetic pigment, and shading also affected the chlorophyll content of plants. Shading altered light-use efficiency by increasing leaf chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and chlorophyll a+b, and decreasing chlorophyll a/b ratios [6], [7], [9]. However, differences among plant species exist; for some turfgrass species, chlorophyll content increased in Lolium perenne L., decreased in Poa pratensis L., but remained unchanged in red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) [8]. Furthermore, light intensity changed the rate of non-photochemical quenching, electron transport rate between PSII and PS?, and quantum yield of PSII (Φ PSII) [13].

Shading applied during developmental stages could reduce the plant dry matter accumulation and disturb the redistribution of photosynthetic products from vegetative organs into grains. Ultimately, this could affect total grain yield by reducing panicles, spikelets, filled grains, and grain weight [7], [11], [14]. However, shade before booting stage of rice mainly decreased tiller number and effective panicle number, and little reduction in rice yield was observed [15], [16]. When shade occurred after booting stage, the filled grain percentage and 1000-grain weight decreased, which decreased overall rice yield [16], [17].

To be successful staple crops, crops need to be resistant to varying growing conditions, providing consistent yield and quality under a range of environmental conditions. Starch pasting viscosity, which is tested using a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA), has long been used in estimating the eating, cooking, and processing quality of rice [18], [19], [20]. While many previous studies focused on shading effects on rice morphology, physiology, and yield, the responses of starch quality to shading in indica hybrid rice are unclear. Therefore, we examined the effects of shading on starch content and starch pasting viscosity in rice genotypes. These research results may lay a theoretical foundation for the selection of shade-tolerant varieties of rice and the improvement of cultivation technologies.

Materials and Methods

Plant Materials and Experimental Conditions

The experiments were conducted on the farm of Sichuan Agricultural University in 2009–2011, Ya’an (29°58′N and 102°59′E), Sichuan Province, P. R. China, in a humid monsoon climate. The mean annual accumulated temperature is 6030.4°C, with rainfall of about 1798.6 mm and sunshine hours of about 944.0 h (Tables 1, 2). The soil type of pot and field experiments is a heavy loam (Table 3).

Table 1. Meteorological data in 2009, 2010, and 2011.

Meteorological factors 2009 2010 2011
Rainfall during the whole growing period (mm) 1489.4 1845.2 1226.9
Accumulated temperature during the whole growing period (°C) 4035.1 3889.0 4021.4
Sunshine hours during the whole growing period (h) 525.4 523.4 672.9
Rainfall during heading-maturing stage (mm) 323.1 952.4
Accumulated temperature during heading-maturing stage (°C) 588.9 1263.8
Sunshine hours during heading-maturing stage (h) 81.6 189.7
Rainfall during 30 d after heading (mm) 549.4
Accumulated temperature during 30 d after heading (°C) 795.5
Sunshine hours during 30 d after heading (h) 181.6

Table 2. Sunshine hours (h) during different growth stages of rice varieties (2009).

Varieties TE EB BH HM
(shading time) (shading time) (shading time) (shading time)
Gangyou 906 111.5 52.3 45.0 81.6
(23 May.–29 June.) (30 June.–21 July.) (22 July.–08 Aug.) (14 Aug.–06 Sept.)
IIyou 498 115.8 46.1
(23 May.–30 June.) (23 July.–11 Aug.)
Gangyou 188 115.8 56.6
(23 May.–30 June.) (24 July.–13 Aug.)
Gangyou 527 119.3 45.0
(23 May.–01 July.) (22 July.–09 Aug.)
Chuanxiang 9838 119.3 41.8
(23 May.–01 July.) (23 July–10 Aug.)

TE, tillering-elongation stage; EB, elongation-booting stage; BH, booting-heading stage; and HM, heading-maturity stage.

Table 3. Soil chemical characteristics of experiments in 2009–2011.

Soil chemical indexes 2009 2010 2011
Organic matter (g kg−1) 29.60 19.74 29.52
Total N (g kg−1) 0.82 2.14 1.38
Total P (g kg−1) 0.36 0.24 0.37
Total K (g kg−1) 11.44 27.60 27.06
NaOH hydrolysable N (mg kg−1) 165.38 161.47 161.02
Olsen-P (mg kg−1) 25.34 82.24 58.37
NH4OAc extractable K (mg kg−1) 74.70 97.61 118.84

The results of preliminary experiment led to the selection of five rice varieties for the pot experiments in 2009: IIyou 498, Gangyou 188, Gangyou 527, Chuanxiang 9838, and Gangyou 906 (Table 4). On May 23, three similar seedlings (at age of 50 days) were transplanted to pots (25 cm in height and 30 cm in diameter). Each pot contained 10 kg of soil previously fertilized with 0.3 g N, 0.3 g P2O5, and 0.3 g K2O. After transplant, N was spilt-applied, 0.18 g pot−1 at mid-tillering and 0.12 g pot−1 at panicle initiation. K was applied 0.6 g pot−1 at panicle initiation.

Table 4. Introduction of indica hybrid rice varieties used in the study.

Varieties Parents Breeding institutes
IIyou 498 II-32A×Shuhui 498 Rice Research Institute of Sichuan Agricultural University
Gangyou 527 Gang 46A×Shuhui 527 Rice Research Institute of Sichuan Agricultural University
Gangyou 906 Gang 46A×Ronghui 906 Chengdu Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences
Dexiang 4103 Dexiang 074A×Luhui H103 Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Gangyou 188 Gang 46A×Lehui 188 Leshan Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Science
Research Institute
Chuanxiang 9838 Chuanxiang 29A×Fuhui 838 Sichuan Tianyu Seed Co., Ltd, Crop Research Institute of
Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences

In Experiment 1, one-layer and two-layer white cotton yarn screens, which shaded about 53% and 73% of the full radiation, respectively, covered the top of Gangyou 906 at tillering-elongation stage (TE; from 23 May to 29 June 2009), elongation-booting stage (EB; from 30 June to 21 July 2009), booting-heading stage (BH; from 22 July to 8 August 2009), and heading-maturity stage (HM; from 14 August to 6 September 2009). In Experiment 2, we studied the responses to shading of starch pasting viscosity of II you 498, Gangyou 188, Gangyou 527, and Chuanxiang 9838 from tillering stage (23 May 2009) to elongation stage (from 30 June to 1 July 2009) and from booting stage (from 22 to 24 July 2009) to heading stage (from 9 to 13 August 2009), by covering with one-layer white cotton yarn screen, which shaded about 53% of the full radiation.

On 20 May 2010 and 25 May 2011, fifty-day-old seedlings were transplanted at a spacing of 33.3 cm×20.0 cm, with two seedlings per hill using plot size of 14.00 m2; IIyou 498, Gangyou 188, Gangyou 527, Chuanxiang 9838, and Dexiang 4103 were selected (Table 4). Fertilizer was applied at a rate of 180 kg ha−1 of N as urea, 90 kg ha−1 of P2O5 as single superphosphate, and 180 kg ha−1 of K2O as potassium chloride. N was split-applied at multiple growing stages: 75.6 kg ha−1 at basal, 32.4 kg ha−1 at mid-tillering, 43.2 kg ha−1 at panicle initiation, and 28.8 kg ha−1 at booting. P was applied at basal, and K application was split equally at basal and panicle initiation. One-layer white cotton yarn screen, which shaded about 53% of the full radiation, covered the top of the rice canopy from heading (5 August 2010) to maturity (26 September 2010), and from heading (8 August 2011) to 30 d after heading (7 September 2011).

The shading screens were more than 2.0 m above the ground to ensure good ventilation and were large enough to fully cover the shaded plants. Plants without covers were set as controls (CK). The pot experiments were conducted using a randomized design, and all field experiments were in randomized block designs, with three replications. In the rice paddy field, we used a high-efficiency irrigation technique of damp irrigation before booting, rational irrigation during booting, and wetting-drying alternation irrigation after heading. Insects, weeds, and diseases were controlled when required. The water level of each pot was maintained at 1–2 cm in depth, and other rice management actions were similar to those used in the paddy field.

Seed Collection for Physicochemical Properties Analysis

At maturity, the seeds from the field experiments were randomly selected from five hills in the center of each block; seeds from the pot experiments were randomly selected from three pots with nine plants. All seeds were dried and stored at room temperature for about three months until the physicochemical properties became stable. Then the seeds were shelled, milled, ground to rice flour using CT410 (FOSS SCINO Co., Ltd., China), and sifted through a 0.5-mm screen.

Starch Pasting Viscosity

Starch pasting viscosity of milled rice flour was determined with the Rapid Visco Analyser using the Super-3, running with Thermal Cycle for Windows software (Newport Scientific Pvt., Ltd., Australia), according to American Association of Cereal Chemists Standard Method 61-02.01 [21]. 3.00 g rice flour (12% moisture basis) was weighed into a new test canister, and then 25.0 ml ultrapure water was added to the flour in the canister. The instrument mixed the flour and water by rotating a paddle at 960 rpm for the first 10 s of the test, after which viscosity was sensed using a constant paddle rotation speed of 160 rpm. The test profile for rice used the following time/temperature cycle [21]: (1) set the idle temperature to 50°C; (2) hold at 50°C for 1.0 min; (3) increase the temperature to 95°C in 3.8 min; (4) hold at 95°C for 2.5 min; (5) decrease the temperature to 50°C in 3.8 min; (6) then hold at 50°C for 1.4 min. Heating and cooling were linearly increased or decreased between profile set points. The instrument was allowed at least 30 min to warm up before being used.

Starch pasting viscosities were described by six parameters: peak viscosity (the maximum hold viscosity, PKV), hold viscosity (the minimum hold viscosity, HPV), final viscosity (the viscosity achieved at the end of the test, CPV), breakdown (peak viscosity minus hold viscosity, BDV), setback (final viscosity minus peak viscosity, SBV), and pasting temperature (PaT) [21]. All the viscosity parameters were expressed in rapid visco units (RVU).

Starch Contents of Rice Flour in 2011

The starch contents of rice flour were determined by dual-wavelength spectrophotometry [22], [23]. The amylose wavelengths of 565 nm and 484 nm and the amylopectin wavelengths of 550 nm and 743 nm were selected as measuring wavelengths. The total starch content was the sum of amylose and amylopectin contents. The results were reported on a dry weight basis.

Statistical Analyses

All data were analyzed using the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Fisher’s protected least significance difference (LSD) test at p = 0.05 and p = 0.01 [24] for comparisons between growth stages, light intensities, and varieties using SPSS 16.0 (SPSS, Chicago, USA). Correlation analysis was carried out using MS Excel 2003 and SPSS 16.0.

Results and Discussion

Effect of Shading on Starch Pasting Viscosity of Rice Flour at Different Growth Stages

We quantified the starch pasting parameters, PKV, HPV, CPV, SBV, BDV, and PaT, of rice at different growth stages (Tables 5, 6). The difference of starch pasting viscosity of Gangyou 906 was caused by light intensity and growth stage; the interaction between these factors had significant (p<0.01) effects on all starch pasting parameters in Experiment 1 (Table 5). Growth stage significantly affected PKV, HPV, SBV, and PaT, while the effect of light intensity was significant for all starch pasting parameters except for HPV (p<0.01). At TE, shading reduced PKV and HPV, but increased CPV, SBV, and BDV. Furthermore, there were significant differences observed in HPV, SBV, and BDV between 73%-shade treatment and the control (CK). PKV and BDV with 53%-shade, and PaT with 73%-shade were higher than the values for CK by 6.1%, 23.9%, and 1.4%, respectively. SBV was 13.1% lower than CK under 53%-shade, but it was 12.7% higher than CK under 73%-shade at EB stage (p<0.05). 53%-shade at BH increased BDV by 10.6% (p<0.05), but decreased PKV, HPV, and CPV. At HM, shading substantially affected the starch pasting viscosity of rice flour, and there were significant (p<0.05) differences between the majority of treatments.

Table 5. Effects of shading on starch pasting viscosity of rice flour of Gangyou 906 in Experiment 1 (2009).

Stages Treatments PKV (RVU) HPV (RVU) CPV (RVU) SBV (RVU) BDV (RVU) PaT (°C)
TE CK 370.07±8.27a 259.44±12.22a 478.40±12.73a 108.33±6.10b 110.63±5.57b 76.43±0.44a
53%-shade 369.21±1.00a 253.39±8.34ab 484.67±5.14a 115.46±5.13ab 115.82±9.20ab 76.61±0.21a
73%-shade 361.29±2.88a 240.03±6.40b 480.50±1.48a 119.21±2.70a 121.26±8.61a 76.41±0.34a
EB CK 370.07±8.27b 259.44±12.22a 478.40±12.73a 108.33±6.10b 110.63±5.57b 76.43±0.44b
53%-shade 392.47±1.50a 255.44±2.16a 486.60±2.96a 94.13±2.80c 137.03±2.85a 76.44±0.03b
73%-shade 369.24±7.82b 267.96±7.03a 491.36±13.26a 122.13±7.47a 101.28±6.12b 77.50±0.25a
BH CK 370.07±8.27a 259.44±12.22a 478.40±12.73a 108.33±6.10b 110.63±5.57b 76.43±0.44a
53%-shade 361.25±12.40a 238.90±11.25b 477.11±10.36a 115.86±4.32ab 122.35±1.15a 76.43±0.09a
73%-shade 360.54±6.44a 253.21±5.40ab 477.93±6.28a 117.39±1.02a 107.33±5.90b 75.92±0.26a
HM CK 370.07±8.27b 259.41±12.22b 478.40±12.73b 108.33±6.10a 110.63±5.57b 76.43±0.44b
53%-shade 410.88±6.20a 278.56±8.25a 510.58±1.02a 99.71±7.03ab 132.32±3.10a 76.42±0.50b
73%-shade 338.94±0.73c 278.56±8.25a 437.10±5.53c 98.15±4.83b 94.72±2.95c 77.65±0.02a
F-value G 6.79** 10.76** 1.99 10.56** 0.94 5.57**
L 41.68** 0.45 11.48** 7.17** 44.59** 6.25**
G×L 17.58** 4.10** 12.44** 7.51** 9.83** 6.39**

TE, tillering-elongation stage; EB, elongation-booting stage; BH, booting-heading stage; HM, heading-maturity stage; G, growth stage; L, light intensity; PKV, peak viscosity; HPV, hold viscosity; CPV, final viscosity; SBV, setback; BDV, breakdown; PaT, pasting temperature; and RVU, rapid visco units.

Values in columns represent the significant differences between CK and shading treatments, (p<0.05). Means ± standard, n = 3.

**

significant at 0.01 level.

Table 6. Effects of shading on starch pasting viscosity of rice flour in Experiment 2 (2009).

Varieties Treatments PKV (RVU) HPV (RVU) CPV (RVU) SBV (RVU) BDV (RVU) PaT (°C)
IIyou 498 CK 369.93±0.63a 231.12±6.01a 441.42±2.79a 71.49±2.63a 138.81±5.43a 78.37±0.04a
Shade at TE 374.46±10.58a 224.20±3.28a 439.26±5.00a 64.81±7.59a 150.26±10.49a 78.25±0.26a
Shade at BH 374.22±10.73a 228.28±4.18a 444.63±13.50a 70.40±2.92a 145.94±8.67a 77.98±0.03a
Gangyou 188 CK 351.54±10.06a 208.00±5.79a 375.85±2.36a 24.31±12.40b 143.54±15.65b 78.59±0.75b
Shade at TE 362.67±5.30a 194.61±12.63ab 373.31±8.13a 10.64±12.19c 165.10±12.95a 78.39±0.02b
Shade at BH 308.14±3.15b 181.91±8.39b 349.03±6.98b 40.89±5.15a 126.24±7.12c 79.77±0.2a
Gangyou 527 CK 373.61±3.33a 209.49±5.76a 407.33±7.12a 33.72±5.30b 164.13±2.57a 78.34±0.04b
Shade at TE 380.64±2.57a 203.87±10.82a 397.83±6.71a 17.19±4.43c 176.77±8.41a 78.79±0.50ab
Shade at BH 231.19±3.57b 135.44±0.97b 281.05±6.26b 49.86±2.70a 95.75±4.47b 79.00±0.22a
Chuanxiang 9838 CK 354.33±13.38a 217.64±19.43a 405.24±10.96b 50.90±2.66b 136.70±6.85a 78.13±0.20b
Shade at TE 350.87±2.39a 219.75±0.54a 425.33±4.02a 74.46±1.82a 131.13±2.84a 78.50±0.35b
Shade at BH 302.00±3.17b 196.34±9.59b 382.17±5.06c 80.17±2.28a 105.67±6.59b 79.87±0.36a
F-value V 70.06** 43.62** 238.24** 120.09** 13.22** 8.68**
G 301.80** 41.27** 146.89** 28.82** 61.83** 20.88**
V×G 77.86** 12.16** 58.01** 9.10** 14.91** 7.61**

TE, tillering-elongation stage; BH, booting-heading stage; V, variety; G, growth stage; PKV, peak viscosity; HPV, hold viscosity; CPV, final viscosity; SBV, setback; BDV, breakdown; PaT, pasting temperature; and RVU, rapid visco units.

Values in columns represent the significant differences between CK and shading treatments, (p<0.05). Means ± standard, n = 3.

**

significant at 0.01 level.

In Experiment 2, the variety, growth stage, and the interactions of these factors had highly significant (p<0.01) effects on all starch pasting parameters (Table 6). At TE, shading significantly (p<0.05) reduced SBV of Gangyou 188 and Gangyou 527 by 56.2% and 49.0%, respectively. However, shading increased BDV (15.0%) of Gangyou 188, and CPV (5.0%) and SBV (46.3%) of Chuanxiang 9838. The influence of shading at BH was greater than that at TE. For Gangyou 188, Gangyou 527, and Chuanxiang 9838, shading reduced PKV, HPV, CPV, and BDV by 5.7% to 41.7%, but significantly increased SBV and PaT by 0.9% to 68.2% (p<0.05). Shading at a later growth stage (after heading) may have greater influence than at an earlier stage. Therefore, shading treatments at heading-maturity stage in 2010 and 30 d after heading in 2011 were studied to clarify the responses of starch pasting viscosity to shading.

Response of Starch Pasting Viscosity to Shading in Different Rice Varieties

During plant growth and development, environmental conditions could impact rice quality [25]. At heading-maturity stage, the changes of starch pasting viscosity were controlled by heredity and environment (Table 7). BDV is related to the starch stability to heat and shear stress, and SBV is related to the recovery of the viscosity during cooling of the heat [21], [25], [26]. The rice with lower SBV and higher BDV showed good eating quality [18], [27]. The effect of variety was significant (p<0.01) for all starch pasting parameters, and the effect of light intensity was significant for all parameters except SBV. There were significant (p<0.05) or highly significant (p<0.01) interactions between light intensity and variety on PKV, HPV, and CPV. The results showed significant (p<0.05) decreases in PKV and BDV of IIyou 498 (2.7% and 10.1%, respectively), but increases in PaT by 1.5%. For Gangyou 188 with shading, PKV, HPV, CPV, and BDV significantly (p<0.05) decreased by 14.5% to 19.8%. PKV, HPV, and CPV of Gangyou 527 were lower (p<0.05) than controls by 4.4% to 5.7%, but PaT was higher. PKV, CPV, and BDV reduced 4.8%, 2.7%, and 11.4%, respectively, in Chuanxiang 9838. In Dexiang 4103, only PKV significantly (p<0.05) increased with shading (1.9%).

Table 7. Effects of shading on starch pasting viscosity of rice flour at heading-maturity stage (2010).

Varieties Treatments PKV (RVU) HPV (RVU) CPV (RVU) SBV (RVU) BDV (RVU) PaT (°C)
IIyou 498 CK 225.38±1.17a 129.75±3.18a 261.25±2.00a 35.88±3.71a 95.63±4.89a 76.45±0.64b
Shading 219.30±1.12b 133.38±1.71a 257.54±3.59a 38.17±4.71a 86.00±0.59b 77.60±0.07a
Gangyou 188 CK 210.42±1.30a 122.42±2.83a 244.42±0.71a 34.00±0.59a 88.00±4.12a 77.38±0.60a
Shading 173.42±2.59b 98.17±1.41b 202.59±1.30b 29.17±3.89a 75.25±4.01b 78.33±0.11a
Gangyou 527 CK 215.13±0.06a 119.00±3.30a 241.54±1.12a 26.42±1.06a 96.13±3.24a 77.70±0.07b
Shading 205.59±0.82b 112.25±1.30b 227.71±1.94b 22.13±1.12a 93.34±0.47a 78.83±0.67a
Chuanxiang 9838 CK 232.50±0.94a 127.63±1.71a 260.42±1.89a 27.92±0.94a 104.88±0.77a 76.88±0.11a
Shading 221.25±1.65b 128.38±4.89a 253.50±6.25b 32.25±7.90a 92.88±6.54b 77.70±0.07a
Dexiang 4103 CK 216.04±1.36b 92.00±1.18a 171.38±1.00a −44.67±0.35a 124.05±0.18a 71.30±0.07a
Shading 220.13±4.30a 97.09±0.12a 171.88±1.24a −48.25±5.54a 123.05±4.42a 71.68±0.67a
F-value L 290.34** 15.14** 170.89** 0.94 31.02** 20.60**
V 306.89** 143.45** 998.46** 613.49** 104.77** 162.38**
L×V 94.31** 23.67** 56.13* 2.23 3.11 0.52

L, light intensity; V, variety; PKV, peak viscosity; HPV, hold viscosity; CPV, final viscosity; SBV, setback; BDV, breakdown; PaT, pasting temperature; and RVU, rapid visco units.

Values in columns represent the significant differences between CK and shading treatments, (p<0.05). Means ± standard, n = 2.

**

significant at 0.01 level;

*

,significant at 0.05 level.

Shading at heading-maturity stage (after heading) could significantly decrease BDV of IIyou 498, Gangyou 188, and Chuanxiang 9838, and the rice viscosity was hard. Compared with other rice varieties, Gangyou 527 and Dexiang 4103 were less affected by shading, as their SBV and BDV had no significant differences among different treatments.

The analysis of variance showed that the effect of variety during 30 d after heading was significant (p<0.01) for starch pasting parameters; light intensity also caused significant differences (Table 8). The interactive effects of light intensity and variety had significant influence on starch pasting parameters (p<0.01), except for HPV. For IIyou 498, shading increased SBV by 85.5%, and it decreased PKV (9.2%), HPV (6.5%), CPV (1.9%), and BDV (12.8%). PKV and BDV of Gangyou 188 with shading were significantly (p<0.05) lower than these of controls by 13.4% and 29.7%, respectively, but the other parameters were higher by 3.2% to 101.8%. In Gangyou 527, shading significantly (p<0.05) decreased PKV, HPV, and BDV by 5.0% to 15.3%, and shading increased SBV and PaT by 30.3% and 1.0%, respectively. PKV, HPV, CPV, and SBV of Chuanxiang 9838 were significantly (p<0.05) lower than CK by 2.3% to 12.0%, but PaT was higher by 1.3%. For Dexiang 4103, shading significantly (p<0.05) decreased PKV (8.1%), HPV (5.5%), CPV (4.1%), and BDV (9.9%), but increased SBV by 18.0%. With shading during 30 d after heading, the rice viscosity of IIyou 498, Gangyou 188, Gangyou 527, and Dexiang 4103 were hard with increasing of SBV and decreasing of BDV, but that of Chuanxiang 9838 was softened.

Table 8. Effects of shading on starch pasting viscosity of rice flour during 30 d after heading (2011).

Varieties Treatments PKV (RVU) HPV (RVU) CPV (RVU) SBV (RVU) BDV (RVU) PaT (°C)
IIyou 498 CK 258.08±2.34a 148.47±2.79a 279.58±3.98a 21.50±2.30b 109.61±1.57a 77.55±0.05a
Shading 234.42±2.73b 138.89±6.77b 274.31±3.90b 39.89±5.19a 95.53±8.56b 77.57±0.10a
Gangyou 188 CK 223.06±2.96a 136.50±4.33a 281.44±2.04b 58.39±0.92b 86.56±2.28a 78.28±0.03b
Shading 193.14±2.12b 132.25±4.45a 310.97±1.93a 117.83±3.99a 60.89±6.56b 80.78±0.03a
Gangyou 527 CK 211.75±2.82a 118.75±6.17a 264.67±3.84a 52.92±3.06b 93.00±4.45a 79.95±0.05b
Shading 191.58±0.29b 112.83±3.56b 260.56±2.36a 68.97±2.56a 78.75±3.77b 80.78±0.03a
Chuanxiang 9838 CK 228.64±1.55a 130.17±7.30a 292.61±7.68a 63.97±6.78a 98.47±6.84a 78.32±0.03b
Shading 223.31±1.75b 122.28±1.35b 279.58±1.61b 56.28±2.80b 101.03±2.03a 79.37±0.03a
Dexiang 4103 CK 247.03±2.95a 97.78±6.83a 175.14±7.17a −71.89±4.25b 149.25±3.90a 71.80±0.09a
Shading 226.92±3.17b 92.42±1.96b 167.94±1.73b −58.97±1.54a 134.50±1.23b 72.10±0.56a
F-value L 623.92** 46.55** 0.00 271.52** 92.30** 181.55**
V 449.79** 298.79** 1951.51** 1966.68** 278.84** 1842.82**
L×V 25.90** 0.97 54.96** 82.61** 10.74** 38.21**

L, light intensity; V, variety; PKV, peak viscosity; HPV, hold viscosity; CPV, final viscosity; SBV, setback; BDV, breakdown; PaT, pasting temperature; and RVU, rapid visco units.

Values in columns represent the significant differences between CK and shading treatments, (p<0.05). Means ± standard, n = 3.

**

significant at 0.01 level.

The shaded rice plants had higher chlorophyll content and larger leaf area before heading [7], [9], [15] and exhibited higher photosynthetic rates than the controls. These changes were beneficial to the accumulation of carbohydrates after regaining normal light. In general, shading reduced the tiller number [11], [12] and increased the percentage of degenerated spikelets [14], resulting in lower effective panicles and filled grains. Shading had less influence on the ultimate brown rice mass and grain yield [15], [16], [17], due to increases in the supply capacity and storage capacity in rice [7], [9], [11], [12]. However, shading after heading seriously reduced the photosynthetic rate of the functional leaves and the quantity of photosynthetic products transported to grain [11], [12], [13]; these reductions were unfavorable for grain filling [7], [14], [17].

The experimental results in 2009–2011 showed that the effect of shading on starch pasting viscosity after heading (30 d after heading and heading-maturity stage) was stronger than that at booting-heading stage, elongation-booting stage, and tillering-elongation stage. Also, different rice cultivars exhibited different levels of sensitivity to shading treatment [9], [11], [12], [13], [15], and these differences manifested themselves at different growth stages in the different rice varieties. At tillering-elongation stage, shading had more influence on Gangyou 188 with lower SBV and higher BDV, and Chuanxiang 9838 with higher SBV and lower BDV (Tables 5, 6). When shading occurred at booting-heading stage, the rice viscosity of Gangyou 188, Gangyou 527, Chuanxiang 9838, and Gangyou 906 was hard, with higher SBV and lower BDV (Tables 5, 6). After heading, BDV of IIyou 498, Gangyou 188, and Gangyou 527 decreased, and the rice viscosity was hard (Tables 7, 8).

The starch pasting viscosity of rice flour, a pasting curve, is generated in a standard temperature program of “heat-hold-cool-hold” [21] and has been used to assist in selecting rice varieties with desirable cooking and eating quality [18], [19], [20]. Starch pasting viscosity, a quantitative trait, was mainly controlled by heredity, although environment affected it to a lesser extent [28], [29]. And the stabilities for the viscosity parameters differed among different rice varieties [30]. Shading generally resulted in an increase in PaT, such as in IIyou 498 in 2010, Gangyou 188 and Chuanxiang 9838 in 2011, and Gangyou 527 in both years (Tables 7, 8). Lower PKV, CPV, and BDV of IIyou 498 and Gangyou 527 were observed with shading across years. Although some of the six viscosity parameters had different change tendencies between 2010 and 2011, we observed stable tendencies in PKV, BDV, and PaT of the five rice varieties with shading across years. Furthermore, the stability of varieties differed, with Dexiang 4103 showing higher shade endurance and stability, but Gangyou 188 and Chuanxiang 9838 showing poor stability.

Starch Content of Rice Flour

Starch was composed of two forms, amylose and amylopectin, and the amylose content had an effect in determining the physical and chemical properties of rice [18]. The differences of amylose, amylopectin, and total starch contents were caused by heredity, environment, and the interactions of heredity and environment (Table 9). The variety and interactions of light and variety had significant (p<0.05) or highly significant (p<0.01) effect on amylose, amylopectin, and total starch contents; light significantly affected amylopectin and total starch contents. With shading during 30 d after heading, amylose, amylopectin, and total starch contents of Gangyou 188 and Dexiang 4103 increased significantly (p<0.05) by 5.7% to 67.0%, while amylopectin and total starch contents of Chuanxiang 9838 increased 12.0% and 7.6%. Conversely, amylose content of Gangyou 527 decreased 3.9% (p<0.05). The changes of rice starch contents to shading might be related to starch synthesis enzyme activities, such as ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, starch branching enzyme, and starch debranching enzyme [31].

Table 9. Effects of shading on starch content of rice flour (2011).

Varieties Treatments Amylose (%) Amylopectin (%) Total starch (%)
IIyou 498 CK 30.52±0.96a 46.64±1.13a 77.17±2.07a
Shading 30.09±0.60a 44.36±2.78a 74.46±2.43a
Gangyou 188 CK 31.29±0.25b 43.59±1.21b 74.89±1.44b
Shading 33.07±0.82a 57.12±1.83a 90.19±1.45a
Gangyou 527 CK 27.36±0.37a 52.23±2.10a 79.58±1.87a
Shading 26.30±1.04b 54.25±5.65a 80.54±4.77a
Chuanxiang 9838 CK 28.87±0.45a 57.67±2.37b 86.54±2.82b
Shading 28.56±0.45a 64.59±2.82a 93.13±3.17a
Dexiang 4103 CK 20.96±0.48b 42.04±0.93b 63.00±1.41b
Shading 22.98±0.60a 70.19±2.38a 93.18±2.66a
F-value L 3.92 100.12** 109.48**
V 283.27** 29.41** 24.21**
L×V 9.30* 30.41** 32.43**

L, light intensity; and V, variety.

Values in columns represent the significant differences between CK and shading treatments, (p<0.05). Means ± standard, n = 3.

**

significant at 0.01 level;

*

,significant at 0.05 level.

Cooked rice with high amylose content was rigid, while rice with low amylose content was relatively soft and sticky [18]. Amylose content and amylopectin content were closely related to the starch pasting profile [18], [25]. In our study (Table 10), HPV, CPV, SBV, and PaT were significantly (p<0.01) positively correlated with amylose content (r = 0.899, r = 0.928, r = 0.846, and r = 0.747, respectively). A significant (p<0.01) negative correlation between BDV and amylose content (r = −0.817) was observed, since higher BDV and lower SBV and amylose content are indicative of good rice quality [18]. However, a negative correlation existed between some starch pasting parameters and amylopectin content, except for SBV and PaT. PKV, HPV, and BDV were negatively correlated with total starch content. Therefore, shading may not only influence morphology, physiology, and yield of rice [7], [9], [11], [14], but may also influence the eating and cooking quality of rice.

Table 10. Correlation coefficients between starch pasting viscosity and starch content of rice (2011).

Items PKV HPV CPV SBV BDV PaT
Amylose −0.228 0.899** 0.928** 0.846** −0.817** 0.747**
Amylopectin −0.362 −0.409 −0.126 0.027 −0.010 0.008
Total starch −0.443 −0.049 0.238 0.356 −0.328 0.299

PKV, peak viscosity; HPV, hold viscosity; CPV, final viscosity; SBV, setback; BDV, breakdown; and PaT, pasting temperature.

**

significant at 0.01 level.

Conclusions

Heredity, environment, and the interactions of heredity and environment were combined to affect starch pasting viscosities and starch contents of different rice varieties. In our study, shading at earlier growth stages had less effect on starch than did shading at later growth stages. At later growth stages, shading resulted in decreased peak viscosity and breakdown, but increased pasting temperature. Furthermore, different rice varieties responded differently to shading. Gangyou 188, Gangyou 527, and Chuanxiang 9838 exhibited the greatest changes due to shading. IIyou 498 and Gangyou 906 had higher endurance to shading before heading, while Dexiang 4103 could maintain high quality when exposed to shade after heading. These differences in the shade endurance among rice varieties can offer a theoretical foundation for selecting and breeding shade-tolerant rice. Using this approach, rice quality would be enhanced by using reasonable cultivation technologies and selecting varieties with strong shade endurance in the low-light regions.

Light illumination has complex effects on rice grain quality. Shading not only affects the filling rate, carbohydrate accumulation of grain, and dry matter transportation in stem-sheath, but it also affects starch synthase and related enzyme activities. Therefore, the relationship between key enzyme activity of starch and starch pasting characteristics, and the technique of rice breeding and cultivation to improve shade endurance require further investigation.

Acknowledgments

We thank the College of Resources and Environment, Sichuan Agricultural University, for providing the meteorological data.

Funding Statement

This study was partially supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China, http://www.most.gov.cn/(2006BAD02A05, 2011BAD16B05-04 and 2012BAD04B13-2) and the Science and Technology Department of Sichuan Province, http://www.scst.gov.cn/info/(2011YZGG-24). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

References

  • 1.Hawksworth DL (1985) Rice diseases. U. K.: CMI Slough, CAB. 380 p.
  • 2.Zhu DF (2000) Bridging the rice yield gap in China. In: Papademetriou MK, Dent FJ, Herath EM, editors. Bridging the Rice Yield Gap in the Asia-Pacific Region. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. 69–83.
  • 3.FAOSTAT. Available: http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx#ancor. Accessed 7 August 2012.
  • 4.Huang WX (1998) Agriculture Natural Resource. Beijing: Chinese Science Press. 157–160 p. (In Chinese).
  • 5. Wang H, Wang FL, Wang G, Majourhat K (2007) The responses of photosynthetic capacity, chlorophyll fluorescence and chlorophyll content of nectarine (Prunus persica var. Nectarina Maxim) to greenhouse and field grown conditions. Sci Hortic 112: 66–72. [Google Scholar]
  • 6. Gregoriou K, Pontikis K, Vemmos S (2007) Effects of reduced irradiance on leaf morphology, photosynthetic capacity, and fruit yield in olive (Olea europaea L.). Photosynthetica 45(2): 172–181. [Google Scholar]
  • 7. Thangaraj M, Sivasubramanian V (1990) Effect of low light intensity on growth and productivity of irrigated rice (Oryza sativa L.) grown in Cauvery delta region. J Madras Agr 77: 220–224. [Google Scholar]
  • 8. Van Huylenbroeck JM, Van Bockstaele E (2001) Effects of shading on photosynthetic capacity and growth of turfgrass species. J Int Turfgrass Soc Res 9: 353–359. [Google Scholar]
  • 9. Viji MM, Thangaraj M, Jayapragasam M (1997) Effect of low light on photosynthetic pigments, photochemical efficiency and hill reaction in rice (Oryza sativa L.). J Agron Crop Sci 178: 193–196. [Google Scholar]
  • 10. Franklin KA, Whitelam GC (2005) Phytochromes and shade-avoidance responses in plants. Ann Bot 96: 169–175. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11. Chaturvedi GS, Ingram KT (1989) Growth and yield of lowland rice in response to shade and drainage. Philipp J Crop Sci 14(2): 61–67. [Google Scholar]
  • 12. Venkateswarlu B (1977) Influence of low light intensity on growth and productivity of rice, Oryza sativa, L. Plant Soil. 47: 713–719. [Google Scholar]
  • 13. Jiao DM, Li X (2001) Cultivar differences in photosynthetic tolerance to photooxidation and shading in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Photosynthetica 39(2): 167–175. [Google Scholar]
  • 14. Yao YL, Yamamoto Y, Yoshida T, Nitta Y, Miyazaki A (2000) Response of differentiated and degenerated spikelets to top-dressing, shading and day/night temperature treatments in rice cultivars with large panicles. Soil Sci Plant Nutr 46(3): 631–641. [Google Scholar]
  • 15. Liu QH, Zhou XB, Yang LQ, Li T, Zhang JJ (2009) Effects of early growth stage shading on rice flag leaf physiological characters and grain growth at grain-filling stage. Yingyong Shengtai Xuebao 20(9): 2135–2141 (In Chinese with English abstract).. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16. Deng F, Wang L, Yao X, Wang JJ, Ren WJ, et al. (2009) Effects of different-growing-stage shading on rice grain-filling and yield. J Sichuan Agr Univ 27(3): 265–269 (In Chinese with English abstract).. [Google Scholar]
  • 17. Cai KJ, Luo SM (1999) Effect of shading on growth, development and yield formation of rice. Yingyong Shengtai Xuebao 10(2): 193–196 (In Chinese with English abstract).. [Google Scholar]
  • 18. Wang XQ, Yin LQ, Shen GZ, Xu L, Liu QQ (2010) Determination of amylose content and its relationship with RVA profile within genetically similar cultivars of rice (Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica). Agr Sci China 9(8): 1101–1107. [Google Scholar]
  • 19. Yan CJ, Tian ZX, Fang YW, Yang YC, Li J, et al. (2011) Genetic analysis of starch paste viscosity parameters in glutinous rice (Oryza sativa L.). Theor Appl Genet 122: 63–76. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20. Jin L, Lu Y, Shao YF, Zhang G, Xiao P, et al. (2010) Molecular marker assisted selection for improvement of the eating, cooking and sensory quality of rice (Oryza sativa L.). J Cereal Sci 51: 159–164. [Google Scholar]
  • 21.AACC (2000) Determination of the Pasting Properties of Rice with the Rapid Visco Analyser. Approved Methods of Analysis 11th Edition. Available: http://methods.aaccnet.org/summaries/61-02-01.aspx. Accessed 28 November 2012.
  • 22. McGrance SJ, Cornell HJ, Rix CJ (1998) A simple and rapid colorimetric method for the determination of amylose in starch products. Starch-Starke 50: 158–163. [Google Scholar]
  • 23. Jarvis CE, Walker JRL (1993) Simultaneous, rapid, spectrophotometric determination of total starch, amylose and amylopectin. J Sci Food Agr 63: 53–57. [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Steel RGD, Torrie JH (1980) Principles and Procedures of Statisitics: A Biometrical Approach. New York: Mcgraw-Hill International Edition.
  • 25. Singh N, Kaur L, Sandhu KS, Kaur J, Nishinari K (2006) Relationships between physicochemical, morphological, thermal, rheological properties of rice starches. Food Hydrocolloids 20: 532–542. [Google Scholar]
  • 26. Jiang D, Yue H, Wollenweber B, Tan W, Mu H, et al. (2009) Effects of post-anthesis drought and waterlogging on accumulation of high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits and glutenin macropolymers content in wheat grain. J Agron Crop Sci 195: 89–97. [Google Scholar]
  • 27. Zaidul ISM, Yamauchi H, Kim SJ, Hashimoto N, Noda T (2007) RVA study of mixtures of wheat flour and potato starches with different phosphorus contents. Food Chem 102: 1105–1111. [Google Scholar]
  • 28. Bao JS, Kong XL, Xie JK, Xu LJ (2004) Analysis of genotypic and environmental effects on rice starch. 1. Apparent amylose content, pasting viscosity, and gel texture. J Agr Food Chem 52: 6010–6016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29. Bao JS, Shen SQ, Xia YW (2006) Analysis of genotype×environment interaction effects for starch pasting viscosity characteristics in indica rice. J Genet Genomics 33(11): 1007–1013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30. Wan XY, Chen LM, Wang HL, Xiao YH, Bi JC, et al. (2004) Stability analysis for the RVA profile properties of rice starch. Zuowu Xuebao 30(12): 1185–1191 (In Chinese with English abstract).. [Google Scholar]
  • 31. Li T, Ohsugi R, Yamagishi T, Sasaki H (2006) Effects of weak light on starch accumulation and starch synthesis enzyme activities in rice at the grain filling stage. Rice Sci 13(1): 51–58. [Google Scholar]

Articles from PLoS ONE are provided here courtesy of PLOS

RESOURCES