Abstract
Modern diets are largely heat-processed and as a result contain high levels of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Dietary advanced glycation end products (dAGEs) are known to contribute to increased oxidant stress and inflammation, which are linked to the recent epidemics of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. This report significantly expands the available dAGE database, validates the dAGE testing methodology, compares cooking procedures and inhibitory agents on new dAGE formation, and introduces practical approaches for reducing dAGE consumption in daily life. Based on the findings, dry heat promotes new dAGE formation by >10- to 100-fold above the uncooked state across food categories. Animal-derived foods that are high in fat and protein are generally AGE-rich and prone to new AGE formation during cooking. In contrast, carbohydrate-rich foods such as vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and milk contain relatively few AGEs, even after cooking. The formation of new dAGEs during cooking was prevented by the AGE inhibitory compound aminoguanidine and significantly reduced by cooking with moist heat, using shorter cooking times, cooking at lower temperatures, and by use of acidic ingredients such as lemon juice or vinegar. The new dAGE database provides a valuable instrument for estimating dAGE intake and for guiding food choices to reduce dAGE intake.
Advanced glycation end products (AGEs), also known as glycotoxins, are a diverse group of highly oxidant compounds with pathogenic significance in diabetes and in several other chronic diseases (1–6). AGEs are created through a nonenzymatic reaction between reducing sugars and free amino groups of proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids. This reaction is also known as the Maillard or browning reaction (7). The formation of AGEs is a part of normal metabolism, but if excessively high levels of AGEs are reached in tissues and the circulation they can become pathogenic (2). The pathologic effects of AGEs are related to their ability to promote oxidative stress and inflammation by binding with cell surface receptors or cross-linking with body proteins, altering their structure and function (8–10). Among the better-studied AGEs are the stable and relatively inert Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML) and the highly reactive derivatives of methyl-glyoxal (MG). Both these AGEs can be derived from protein and lipid glycoxidation (11,12).
In addition to AGEs that form within the body, AGEs also exist in foods. AGEs are naturally present in uncooked animal-derived foods, and cooking results in the formation of new AGEs within these foods. In particular, grilling, broiling, roasting, searing, and frying propagate and accelerate new AGE formation (7,13). A wide variety of foods in modern diets are exposed to cooking or thermal processing for reasons of safety and convenience as well as to enhance flavor, color, and appearance. The fact that the modern diet is a large source of AGEs is now well-documented (3,7,13). Because it had previously been assumed that dietary AGEs (dAGEs) are poorly absorbed, their potential role in human health and disease was largely ignored. However, recent studies with the oral administration of a single AGE-rich meal to human beings as well as labeled single protein-AGEs or diets enriched with specific AGEs such as MG to mice clearly show that dAGEs are absorbed and contribute significantly to the body’s AGE pool (14–16).
Consumption of AGE-rich diets by mice is associated with elevated circulating and tissue AGEs and conditions such as atherosclerosis (17) and kidney disease (18). On the other hand, restriction of dAGEs prevents vascular and kidney dysfunction (18,19), diabetes type 1 or type 2 (20), improves insulin sensitivity (21,22), and accelerates wound healing (23). Low dAGE intake has also been shown to lengthen lifespan to the same extent as does energy restriction in mice (16). Studies in healthy human beings show that dAGEs directly correlate with circulating AGEs, such as CML and MG, as well as with markers of oxidative stress (24). Moreover, restriction of dAGEs in patients with diabetes (25) or kidney disease (26,27) as well as in healthy subjects (28) also reduces markers of oxidative stress and inflammation. Together, the findings from animal and human studies suggest that avoidance of dAGEs in food helps delay chronic diseases and aging in animals and possibly in human beings (3).
From a practical perspective, aside from a few reports, which include an initial dAGE database on 249 foods (13), this area is void of relevant information and guidance for professionals. The purpose of this report is to expand the existing dAGE database by more than twofold, validate the methods used to test AGEs in food, examine different procedures and reagents on new dAGE formed, and introduce practical methods to reduce the consumption of dAGEs in daily life.
METHODS
AGE Content of Foods
The AGE content of food samples was analyzed during the period 2003–2008. Foods were selected on the basis of their frequency on 3-day food records collected from healthy subjects in a catchment population in the Upper East Side and East Harlem in Manhattan, New York, NY. Therefore, these foods represent foods and culinary techniques typical of a Northeastern American multiethnic urban population. Foods were obtained from the cafeteria of The Mount Sinai Hospital, from local restaurants or supermarkets, or were prepared in the General Clinical Research Center at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Foods were subjected to standard cooking methods such as boiling (100°C), broiling (225°C), deep-frying (180°C), oven-frying (230°C), and roasting (177°C), unless otherwise stated in the database (see Table 1 available online at www.adajournal.org). The time of cooking varied as described in the database. Test procedures such as marinating, application of differing heating conditions, or cooking foods in differing fats or oils are also described in the database.
Table 1.
The advanced glycation end product (AGE) content of 549 foods, based on carboxymethyllysine content
| AGE Content
|
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Food item | AGEa kU/100g | Serving size (g) | AGE kU/serving |
| Fats | |||
| Almonds, blanched slivered (Bazzini’s Nut Club, Bronx, NY) | 5,473 | 30 | 1,642 |
| Almonds, roasted | 6,650 | 30 | 1,995 |
| Avocado | 1,577 | 30 | 473 |
| Butter, whippedb | 26,480 | 5 | 1,324 |
| Butter, sweet cream, unsalted, whipped (Land O’Lakes, St Paul, MN) | 23,340 | 5 | 1,167 |
| Cashews, raw (Bazzini’s Nut Club) | 6,730 | 30 | 2,019 |
| Cashews, roasted | 9,807 | 30 | 2,942 |
| Chestnut, raw | 2,723 | 30 | 817 |
| Chestnut, roasted, in toaster oven 350°F for 27 min | 5,353 | 30 | 1,606 |
| Cream cheese, Philadelphia soft, (Kraft, Northfield, IL) | 10,883 | 30 | 3,265 |
| Cream cheese, Philadelphia original (Kraft) | 8,720 | 30 | 2,616 |
| Margarine, tub | 17,520 | 5 | 876 |
| Margarine, tub, I Can’t Believe it’s Not Butter (Unilever, Rotterdam, The Netherlands) | 9,920 | 5 | 496 |
| Margarine, tub, Smart Balance (CFA Brands, Heart Beat Foods, Paramus, NJ) | 6,220 | 5 | 311 |
| Margarine, tub, Take Control (Unilever Best Foods) | 4,000 | 5 | 200 |
| Mayonnaise | 9,400 | 5 | 470 |
| Mayonnaise, imitation (Diet Source, Novartis Nutriton Group, East Hanover, NJ) | 200 | 5 | 10 |
| Mayonnaise, low fat (Hellman’s, Unilever Best Foods) | 2,200 | 5 | 110 |
| Olive, ripe, large (5 g) | 1,670 | 30 | 501 |
| Peanut butter, smooth, Skippy (Unilever) | 7,517 | 30 | 2,255 |
| Peanuts, cocktail (Planters, Kraft) | 8,333 | 30 | 2,500 |
| Peanuts, dry roasted, unsalted (Planters, Kraft) | 6,447 | 30 | 1,934 |
| Peanuts, roasted in shell, salted (Frito-Lay, Plano, TX) | 3,440 | 30 | 1,032 |
| Pine nuts (pignolias), raw (Bazzini’s Nut Club) | 11,210 | 30 | 3,363 |
| Pistachios, salted (Frito Lay) | 380 | 30 | 114 |
| Pumpkin seeds, raw, hulled (House of Bazzini, Bronx, NY) | 1,853 | 30 | 556 |
| Soybeans, roasted and salted (House of Bazzini) | 1,670 | 30 | 501 |
| Sunflower seeds, raw, hulled (House of Bazzini) | 2,510 | 30 | 753 |
| Sunflower seeds, roasted and salted (House of Bazzini) | 4,693 | 30 | 1,408 |
| Tartar Sauce, creamy (Kraft) | 247 | 15 | 37 |
| Walnuts, roasted | 7,887 | 30 | 2,366 |
| AGE kU/100 mL | Serving size (mL) | AGE kU/serving | |
|
| |||
| Fat, liquid | |||
| Cream, heavy, ultra-pasteurized (Farmland Dairies, Fairlawn, NJ) | 2,167 | 15 | 325 |
| Oil, canola | 9,020 | 5 | 451 |
| Oil, corn | 2,400 | 5 | 120 |
| Oil, cottonseed (The B Manischewitz Company, Cincinnati, OH) | 8,520 | 5 | 426 |
| Oil, diaglycerol, Enova (ADM Kao LLC, Decatur, IL) | 10,420 | 5 | 521 |
| Oil, olive | 11,900 | 5 | 595 |
| Oil, olive, extra virgin, first cold pressed (Colavita, Linden, NJ) | 10,040 | 5 | 502 |
| Oil, peanut (Planters) | 11,440 | 5 | 572 |
| Oil, safflower (The Hain Celestial Group, Inc, Melville, NY) | 3,020 | 5 | 151 |
| Oil, sesame (Asian Gourmet) | 21,680 | 5 | 1084 |
| Oil, sunflower (The Hain Celestial Group, Inc) | 3,940 | 5 | 197 |
| Salad dressing, blue cheese (Kraft) | 273 | 15 | 41 |
| Salad dressing, caesar (Kraft) | 740 | 15 | 111 |
| Salad dressing, French (H. J. Heinz Co, Pittsburgh, PA) | 113 | 15 | 17 |
| Salad dressing, French, lite, (Diet Source, Novartis Nutr Corp) | 0 | 15 | 0 |
| Salad dressing, Italian (Heinz) | 273 | 15 | 41 |
| Salad dressing, Italian, lite (Diet Source, Novartis Nutr Corp) | 0 | 15 | 0 |
| Salad dressing, thousand island (Kraft) | 187 | 15 | 28 |
| AGE Content
|
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Meats and meat substitutes | AGE kU/100 g | Serving size (g) | AGE kU/serving |
| Beef | |||
| Beef, bologna | 1,631 | 90 | 1,468 |
| Beef, corned brisket, deli meat (Boar’s Head, Sarasota, FL) | 199 | 90 | 179 |
| Beef, frankfurter, boiled in water, 212° F, 7 min | 7,484 | 90 | 6,736 |
| Beef, frankfurter, broiled 450°F, 5 min | 11,270 | 90 | 10,143 |
| Beef, ground, boiled, marinated 10 min w/lemon juice | 1,538 | 90 | 1,384 |
| Beef, ground, pan browned, marinated 10 min w/lemon juice | 3,833 | 90 | 3,450 |
| Beef, ground, 20% fat, pan browned | 4,928 | 90 | 4,435 |
| Beef, ground, 20% fat, pan/cover | 5,527 | 90 | 4,974 |
| Beef, hamburger (McDonald’s Corpd, Oak Brook, IL) | 5,418 | 90 | 4,876 |
| Beef, hamburger patty, olive oil 180°F, 6 min | 2,639 | 90 | 2,375 |
| Beef, meatball, potted (cooked in liquid), 1 hc | 4,300 | 90 | 3,870 |
| Beef, meatball, w/saucec | 2,852 | 90 | 2,567 |
| Beef, meatloaf, crust off, 45 min | 1,862 | 90 | 1,676 |
| Beef, raw | 707 | 90 | 636 |
| Beef, roastb | 6,071 | 90 | 5,464 |
| Beef, salami, kosher (Hebrew National, ConAgra Foods, Omaha, NE) | 628 | 90 | 565 |
| Beef, steak, broiledc | 7,479 | 90 | 6,731 |
| Beef, steak, grilled 4 min, George Foreman grill (Salton Inc, Lake Forest, IL) | 7,416 | 90 | 6,674 |
| Beef, steak, microwaved, 6 min | 2,687 | 90 | 2,418 |
| Beef, steak, pan fried w/olive oil | 10,058 | 90 | 9,052 |
| Beef, steak, raw | 800 | 90 | 720 |
| Beef, steak, strips, 450°F, 15 minc | 6,851 | 90 | 6,166 |
| Beef, steak, strips, stir fried with 1 T canola oil, 15 min | 9,522 | 90 | 8,570 |
| Beef, steak, strips, stir fried without oil, 7 min | 6,973 | 90 | 6,276 |
| Beef, stewed, shoulder cutc | 2,230 | 90 | 2,007 |
| Beef, stewedb | 2,657 | 90 | 2,391 |
| Beef, stewed, (mean) | 2,443 | 90 | 2,199 |
| Poultry | |||
| Chicken, back or thigh, roasted then BBQb | 8,802 | 90 | 7,922 |
| Chicken, boiled in water, 1 h | 1,123 | 90 | 1,011 |
| Chicken, boiled with lemon | 957 | 90 | 861 |
| Chicken, breast, skinless, roasted with BBQ saucec | 4,768 | 90 | 4,291 |
| Chicken, breast, skinless, breadedb | 4,558 | 90 | 4,102 |
| Chicken, breast, skinless, breaded, reheated 1 minb | 5,730 | 90 | 5,157 |
| Chicken, breast, boiled in waterc | 1,210 | 90 | 1,089 |
| Chicken, breast, breaded, deep fried, 20 min | 9,722 | 90 | 8,750 |
| Chicken, breast, breaded, oven fried, 25 min, with skinc | 9,961 | 90 | 8,965 |
| Chicken, breast, breaded/pan friedc | 7,430 | 90 | 6,687 |
| Chicken, breast, grilled/George Foreman grill (Salton Inc) | 4,849 | 90 | 4,364 |
| Chicken, breast, pan fried, 13 min, highc | 4,938 | 90 | 4,444 |
| Chicken, breast, pan fried, 13 min high/microwave 12.5 secc | 5,417 | 90 | 4,875 |
| Chicken, breast, poached, 7 min, medium heatc | 1,101 | 90 | 991 |
| Chicken, breast, potted (cooked in liquid), 10 min medium heatc | 2,480 | 90 | 2,232 |
| Chicken, breast, roasted, 45 min with skinc | 6,639 | 90 | 5,975 |
| Chicken, breast, skinless, microwave, 5 min | 1,524 | 90 | 1,372 |
| Chicken, breast, skinless, poached, 15 min | 1,076 | 90 | 968 |
| Chicken, breast, skinless, raw | 769 | 90 | 692 |
| Chicken, breast, steamed in foil, 15 min, medium heatc | 1,058 | 90 | 952 |
| Chicken, breast, strips, stir fried with canola oil, 7 min | 4,140 | 90 | 3,726 |
| Chicken, breast, strips, stir fried without oil, 7 min | 3,554 | 90 | 3,199 |
| Chicken, breast, with skin, 450°F, 45 minc | 8,244 | 90 | 7,420 |
| Chicken, breast, skinless, broiled, 450°F, 15 min | 5,828 | 90 | 5,245 |
| Chicken, crispy (McDonald’sd) | 7,722 | 90 | 6,950 |
| Chicken, curry, cube skinless breast, panfry10 min, broiled 12 minc | 6,340 | 90 | 5,706 |
| Chicken, curry, cube skinless breast, steam 10 min, broiled 12 minc | 5,634 | 90 | 5,071 |
| Chicken, dark meat, broiled, inside, 450°F, 15 min | 8,299 | 90 | 7,469 |
| Chicken, fried, in olive oil, 8 min | 7,390 | 90 | 6,651 |
| Chicken, ground, dark meat with skin, rawc | 1,223 | 90 | 1,101 |
| Chicken, ground, dark w/skin, pan fried, w/canola oil, 2.5 min, high heatc | 3,001 | 90 | 2,701 |
| Chicken, ground, white meat, pan fried, no added fat, 5 min, high heatc | 1,808 | 90 | 1,627 |
| Chicken, ground, white meat, pan fried, with oil | 1,647 | 90 | 1,482 |
| Chicken, ground, white meat, raw | 877 | 90 | 789 |
| Chicken, kebab, cubed skinless breast, pan fried, 15 minc | 6,122 | 90 | 5,510 |
| Chicken, leg, roastedb | 4,650 | 90 | 4,185 |
| Chicken, loaf, roastedc | 3,946 | 90 | 3,551 |
| Chicken, loaf, roasted, crust offc | 1,420 | 90 | 1,278 |
| Chicken, meat ball, potted (cooked in liquid), 1 h | 1,501 | 90 | 1,351 |
| Chicken, nuggets, fast food (McDonald’sd) | 8,627 | 90 | 7,764 |
| Chicken, potted (cooked in liquid) with onion and water | 3,329 | 90 | 2,996 |
| Chicken, roastedc | 6,020 | 90 | 5,418 |
| Chicken, selects (McDonald’s) | 9,257 | 90 | 8,331 |
| Chicken, skin, back or thigh, roasted then BBQb | 18,520 | 90 | 16,668 |
| Chicken, skin, leg, roastedb | 10,997 | 90 | 9,897 |
| Chicken, skin, thigh, roastedb | 11,149 | 90 | 10,034 |
| Chicken, thigh, roastedb | 5,146 | 90 | 4,631 |
| Turkey, burger, pan fried with cooking spray, 5 min, high heatc | 7,968 | 90 | 7,171 |
| Turkey, burger, pan fried with cooking spray, 5 min, high heat, microwaved 13.5 sec, high heatc | 8,938 | 90 | 8,044 |
| Turkey, burger, pan fried with 5 mL canola oil, 3.5 min, high heatc | 8,251 | 90 | 7,426 |
| Turkey, ground, grilled, crust | 6,351 | 90 | 5,716 |
| Turkey, ground, grilled, interior | 5,977 | 90 | 5,379 |
| Turkey, ground, raw | 4,957 | 90 | 4,461 |
| Turkey, burger, broiled | 5,366 | 90 | 4,829 |
| Turkey, breast, roasted | 4,669 | 90 | 4,202 |
| Turkey, breast, smoked, searedc | 6,013 | 90 | 5,412 |
| Turkey, breast, steak, skinless, marinated w/orange juice, broiledc | 4,388 | 90 | 3,949 |
| Pork | |||
| Bacon, fried 5 min no added oil | 91,577 | 13 | 11,905 |
| Bacon, microwaved, 2 slices, 3 min | 9,023 | 13 | 1,173 |
| Ham, deli, smoked | 2,349 | 90 | 2,114 |
| Liverwurst (Boar’s Head) | 633 | 90 | 570 |
| Pork, chop, marinated w/balsamic vinegar, BBQb | 3,334 | 90 | 3,001 |
| Pork, chop, raw, marinated w/balsamic vinegarb | 1,188 | 90 | 1,069 |
| Pork, chop, pan fried, 7 min | 4,752 | 90 | 4,277 |
| Pork, ribs, roasted, Chinese take out | 4,430 | 90 | 3,987 |
| Pork, roast, Chinese take out | 3,544 | 90 | 3,190 |
| Sausage, beef and pork links, pan fried | 5,426 | 90 | 4,883 |
| Sausage, Italian, rawb | 1,861 | 90 | 1,675 |
| Sausage, Italian, BBQb | 4,839 | 90 | 4,355 |
| Sausage, pork links, microwaved, 1 min | 5,943 | 90 | 5,349 |
| Lamb | |||
| Lamb, leg, boiled, 30 min | 1,218 | 90 | 1,096 |
| Lamb, leg, broiled, 450°F, 30 min | 2,431 | 90 | 2,188 |
| Lamb, leg, microwave, 5 min | 1,029 | 90 | 926 |
| Lamb, leg, raw | 826 | 90 | 743 |
| Veal | |||
| Veal, stewed | 2,858 | 90 | 2,572 |
| Fish/seafood | |||
| Crabmeat, fried, breaded (take out) | 3,364 | 90 | 3,028 |
| Fish, loaf (gefilte), boiled 90 min | 761 | 90 | 685 |
| Salmon, Atlantic, farmed, prev. frozen, microwaved, 1 min, high heatc | 954 | 90 | 859 |
| Salmon, Atlantic, farmed, prev. frozen, poached, 7 min, medium heatc | 1,801 | 90 | 1,621 |
| Salmon, Atlantic, farmed, prev. frozen, steamed, 10 min, medium heatc | 1,212 | 90 | 1,091 |
| Salmon, Atlantic, farmed, prev. frozen, steamed in foil, 8 min, medium heatc | 1,000 | 90 | 900 |
| Salmon, breaded, broiled 10 min | 1,498 | 90 | 1,348 |
| Salmon, broiled with olive oil | 4,334 | 90 | 3,901 |
| Salmon, canned pink (Rubenstein, Trident Seafoods, Seattle, WA) | 917 | 90 | 825 |
| Salmon, fillet, boiled, submerged, 18 min | 1,082 | 90 | 974 |
| Salmon, fillet, broiled | 3,347 | 90 | 3,012 |
| Salmon, fillet, microwaved | 912 | 90 | 821 |
| Salmon, fillet, poached | 2,292 | 90 | 2,063 |
| Salmon, pan fried in olive oil | 3,083 | 90 | 2,775 |
| Salmon, raw, previously frozen | 517 | 90 | 465 |
| Salmon, raw | 528 | 90 | 475 |
| Salmon, smoked | 572 | 90 | 515 |
| Scrod, broiled 450°F, 30 min | 471 | 90 | 424 |
| Shrimp frozen dinner, microwaved 4.5 min | 4,399 | 90 | 3,959 |
| Shrimp, fried, breaded (take out) | 4,328 | 90 | 3,895 |
| Shrimp, marinated rawb | 1,003 | 90 | 903 |
| Shrimp, marinated, grilled on BBQb | 2,089 | 90 | 1,880 |
| Trout, baked, 25 min | 2,138 | 90 | 1,924 |
| Trout, raw | 783 | 90 | 705 |
| Tuna, patty, chunk light, broiled, 450°F, 30 min | 747 | 90 | 672 |
| Tuna, broiled, with soy, 10 min | 5,113 | 90 | 4,602 |
| Tuna, broiled, with vinegar dressing | 5,150 | 90 | 4,635 |
| Tuna, fresh, baked, 25 min | 919 | 90 | 827 |
| Tuna, loaf (chunk light in recipe), baked 40 min | 590 | 90 | 531 |
| Tuna, canned, chunk light, w/water | 452 | 90 | 407 |
| Tuna, canned, white, albacore, w/oil | 1,740 | 90 | 1,566 |
| Whiting, breaded, oven fried, 25 minc | 8,774 | 90 | 7,897 |
| Cheese | |||
| Cheese, American, low fat (Kraft) | 4,040 | 30 | 1,212 |
| Cheese, American, white, processed | 8,677 | 30 | 2,603 |
| Cheese, brie | 5,597 | 30 | 1,679 |
| Cheese, cheddar | 5,523 | 30 | 1,657 |
| Cheese, cheddar, extra sharp, made with 2% milk (Cracker Barrel, Kraft) | 2,457 | 30 | 737 |
| Cheese, cottage, 1% fat (Light & Lively, Kraft) | 1,453 | 30 | 436 |
| Cheese, feta, Greek, soft | 8,423 | 30 | 2,527 |
| Cheese, mozzarella, reduced fat | 1,677 | 30 | 503 |
| Cheese, parmesan, grated (Kraft) | 16,900 | 15 | 2,535 |
| Cheese, Swiss, processedb | 4,470 | 30 | 1,341 |
| Cheese, Swiss, reduced fat (Alpine Lace, Alpine Lace Brands, Inc, Maplewood, NJ) | 4,743 | 30 | 1,423 |
| Soy | |||
| Bacon bits, imitation, Bacos (Betty Crocker, General Mills, Minneapolis, MN) | 1,247 | 15 | 187 |
| Meatless jerky, Primal Strips (Primal Spirit Inc, Moundsville, WV) | 1,398 | 90 | 1,258 |
| Soy burger, Boca Burger, 400°F, 8 min-4 each sidec (BOCA Foods Co, Mandison, WI) | 130 | 30 | 39 |
| Soy burger, Boca Burger, microwaved, 1.5 minc (BOCA Foods Co) | 67 | 30 | 20 |
| Soy burger, Boca Burger, skillet, cook spray, 5 minc (BOCA Foods Co) | 100 | 30 | 30 |
| Soy burger, Boca Burger, skillet, w/1 tsp olive oil, 5 minc (BOCA Foods Co) | 437 | 30 | 131 |
| Soy burger, Boca Burger (BOCA Foods Co) (mean) | 183 | 30 | 55 |
| Tofu, broiled | 4,107 | 90 | 3,696 |
| Tofu, raw | 788 | 90 | 709 |
| Tofu, soft, raw | 488 | 90 | 439 |
| Tofu, sautéed, inside | 3,569 | 90 | 3,212 |
| Tofu, sautéed, outside | 5,877 | 90 | 5,289 |
| Tofu, sautéed (mean) | 4,723 | 90 | 4,251 |
| Tofu, soft, boiled 5 min, +2 min to return to boilc | 628 | 90 | 565 |
| Tofu, soft, boiled 5 min, +2 min,+ soy sauce, sesame oilc | 796 | 90 | 716 |
| Eggs | |||
| Egg, fried, one large | 2,749 | 45 | 1,237 |
| Egg white powder (Deb-El Products, Elizabeth, NJ) | 1,040 | 10 | 104 |
| Egg white, large, 10 min | 43 | 30 | 13 |
| Egg white, large, 12 min | 63 | 30 | 19 |
| Egg yolk, large, 10 min | 1,193 | 15 | 179 |
| Egg yolk, large, 12 min | 1,680 | 15 | 252 |
| Egg, omelet, pan, low heat, cooking spray, 11 minc | 90 | 30 | 27 |
| Egg, omelet, pan, low heat, corn oil, 12 minc | 223 | 30 | 67 |
| Egg, omelet, pan, low heat, margarine, 8 minc | 163 | 30 | 49 |
| Egg, omelet, pan, low, butter, 13 minc | 507 | 30 | 152 |
| Egg, omelet, pan, low, olive oil, 12 minc | 337 | 30 | 101 |
| Egg, poached, below simmer, 5 minc | 90 | 30 | 27 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, high, butter, 45 secc | 337 | 30 | 101 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, high, cooking spray, 1 minc | 117 | 30 | 35 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, high, corn oil, 1 minc | 173 | 30 | 52 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, high, margarine, 1 minc | 123 | 30 | 37 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, high, olive oil, 1minc | 243 | 30 | 73 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, med-low, butter, 2 minc | 167 | 30 | 50 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, med-low, cooking spray, 2 minc | 67 | 30 | 20 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, med-low, corn oil, 1.5 minc | 123 | 30 | 37 |
| Egg, scrambled pan, med-low, margarine, 2 minc | 63 | 30 | 19 |
| Egg, scrambled, pan, med-low, olive oil, 2 minc | 97 | 30 | 29 |
| AGE Content
|
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Carbohydrates | AGE kU/100 g | Serving size (g) | AGE kU/serving |
| Bread | |||
| Bagel, small, Lender’sb | 133 | 30 | 40 |
| Bagel, largeb | 107 | 30 | 32 |
| Bagel, toastedb | 167 | 30 | 50 |
| Biscuit (Mc Donald’sd) | 1,470 | 30 | 441 |
| Biscuit, refrigerator, baked-oven, 350°F, 17 min (Pillsbury Grands, General Mills) | 1,343 | 30 | 403 |
| Biscuit, refrigerator, uncooked (Pillsbury Grands, General Mills) | 823 | 30 | 247 |
| Bread, 100% whole wheat, center, toasted (Wonder, Interstate Bakeries, Inc, Irving, TX) | 83 | 30 | 25 |
| Bread, 100% whole wheat, center (Wonder) | 53 | 30 | 16 |
| Bread, 100% whole wheat, top crust (Wonder) | 73 | 30 | 22 |
| Bread, 100% whole wheat, top crust, toasted (Wonder) | 120 | 30 | 36 |
| Bread, Greek, hard | 150 | 30 | 45 |
| Bread, Greek, hard, toasted | 607 | 30 | 182 |
| Bread, Greek, soft | 110 | 30 | 33 |
| Bread, pita | 53 | 30 | 16 |
| Bread, white, Italian, center (Freihoffer’s, Bimbo Bakeries, Horsham, PA) | 23 | 30 | 7 |
| Bread, white, Italian, center, toasted (Freihoffer’s) | 83 | 30 | 25 |
| Bread, white, Italian, crust (Freihoffer’s) | 37 | 30 | 11 |
| Bread, white, Italian, top crust, toasted (Freihoffer’s) | 120 | 30 | 36 |
| Bread, white, slice (Rockland Bakery, Nanuet, NY) | 83 | 30 | 25 |
| Bread, white, slice, toasted (Rockland Bakery) | 107 | 30 | 32 |
| Bread, whole wheat, slice (Rockland Bakery) | 103 | 30 | 31 |
| Bread, whole wheat, slice, toasted, slice, (Rockland Bakery) | 137 | 30 | 41 |
| Croissant, butter (Starbucks, Seattle, WA) | 1,113 | 30 | 334 |
| Roll, dinner, inside | 23 | 30 | 7 |
| Roll, dinner, outside | 77 | 30 | 23 |
| Breakfast cereals | |||
| Bran flakes, from raisin bran (Post, Kellogg Co, Battle Creak, MI) | 33 | 30 | 10 |
| Cinnamon Toast Crunch (General Mills) | 1,100 | 30 | 330 |
| Corn Flakes (Kellogg’s) | 233 | 30 | 70 |
| Corn Flakes, Honey Nut (Kellogg Co) | 320 | 30 | 96 |
| Corn Flakes, Sugar Frosted (Kellogg Co) | 427 | 30 | 128 |
| Corn Pops (Kellogg’s) | 1,243 | 30 | 373 |
| Cream of Wheat, instant, prepared (Nabisco, East Hanover, NJ) | 108 | 175 | 189 |
| Cream of Wheat, instant, prepared with honey (Nabisco) | 189 | 175 | 331 |
| Fiber One (General Mills) | 1,403 | 30 | 421 |
| Froot Loops (Kellogg Co) | 67 | 30 | 20 |
| Frosted Mini Wheats (Kellogg Co) | 210 | 30 | 63 |
| Granola, Organic Oats & Honey (Cascadian Farms, Small Planet Foods, Minneapolis, MN) | 427 | 30 | 128 |
| Life, mean (Quaker Oats, Chicago, IL) | 1,313 | 30 | 394 |
| Puffed Corn Cereal (Arrowhead Mills, The Hain Celestial Group, Inc) | 100 | 30 | 30 |
| Puffed Wheat | 17 | 30 | 5 |
| Rice Krispies (Kellogg Co) | 2,000 | 30 | 600 |
| Total, Wheat and Brown Rice (General Mills) | 233 | 30 | 70 |
| Oatmeal, instant, dry (Quaker Oats) | 13 | 30 | 4 |
| Oatmeal, instant, prepared (Quaker Oats) | 14 | 175 | 25 |
| Oatmeal, instant, prepared with honey (Quaker Oats) | 18 | 175 | 31 |
| Breakfast foods | |||
| French toast, Aunt Jemima, frozen, microwaved 1 min (Pinnacle Foods) | 603 | 30 | 181 |
| French toast, Aunt Jemima, frozen,10 min @ 400°F (Pinnacle Foods Corp) | 850 | 30 | 255 |
| French toast, Aunt Jemima, frozen, not heated (Pinnacle Foods Corp, Cherry Hill, NJ) | 263 | 30 | 79 |
| French toast, Aunt Jemima frozen, toaster medium-1 cycle (Pinnacle Foods) | 613 | 30 | 184 |
| Hot Cakes (McDonald’sd) | 243 | 30 | 73 |
| Pancake, from mix | 823 | 30 | 247 |
| Pancake, frozen, toasted (General Mills) | 2,263 | 30 | 679 |
| Pancake, homemade | 973 | 30 | 292 |
| Waffle, frozen, toasted (Kellogg Co) | 2,870 | 30 | 861 |
| Grains/legumes | |||
| Beans, red kidney, raw | 116 | 100 | 116 |
| Beans, red kidney, canned | 191 | 100 | 191 |
| Beans, red kidney, cooked 1 h | 298 | 100 | 298 |
| Pasta, cooked 8 min | 112 | 100 | 112 |
| Pasta, cooked 12 min | 242 | 100 | 242 |
| Pasta, spiralb | 245 | 100 | 245 |
| Rice, white, quick cooking, 10 min | 9 | 100 | 9 |
| Rice, Uncle Ben’s white, cooked, 35 min (Mars, Inc, Houston, TX) | 9 | 100 | 9 |
| Rice, white, pan toasted 10 min, cooked 30 min | 32 | 100 | 32 |
| Starchy vegetables | |||
| Corn, canned | 20 | 100 | 20 |
| Potato, sweet, roasted 1 h | 72 | 100 | 72 |
| Potato, white, boiled 25 min | 17 | 100 | 17 |
| Potato, white, roasted 45 min, with 5 mL oil/servingc | 218 | 100 | 218 |
| Potato, white, french fries (McDonald’sd) | 1,522 | 100 | 1,522 |
| Potato, white, french fries, homemade | 694 | 100 | 694 |
| Potato, white, french fries, in corn oil, held under heat lampb | 843 | 100 | 843 |
| Potato, white, hash browns (McDonald’sd) | 129 | 100 | 129 |
| Crackers/snacks | |||
| Breadsticks, Stella D’oro hard (Brynwood Partners, Greenwich, CT) | 127 | 30 | 38 |
| Cheez Doodles, crunchy (Wise Foods Inc, Berwick, PA) | 3,217 | 30 | 965 |
| Chex mix, traditonal (General Mills, Inc) | 1,173 | 30 | 352 |
| Chips, corn, Doritos (Frito Lay) | 503 | 30 | 151 |
| Chips, corn, Harvest Cheddar Sun Chips (Frito-Lay) | 1,270 | 30 | 381 |
| Chips, Platanitos, plantain (Plantain Products Co, Tampa, FL) | 370 | 30 | 111 |
| Chips, potato (Frito Lay) | 2,883 | 30 | 865 |
| Chips, potato, baked original potato crisps (Frito Lay) | 450 | 30 | 135 |
| Combos, nacho cheese pretzel (M & M Mars, McLean, VA) | 1,680 | 30 | 504 |
| Cracker, chocolate Teddy graham (Nabisco) | 1,647 | 30 | 494 |
| Cracker, Pepperidge Farms Goldfish, cheddar (Campbell Soup Co, Camden, NJ) | 2,177 | 30 | 653 |
| Cracker, Keebler honey graham (Kellogg Co) | 1,220 | 30 | 366 |
| Cracker, Old London melba toast (Nonni’s Food Co, Tulsa, OK) | 903 | 30 | 271 |
| Cracker, oyster | 1,710 | 30 | 513 |
| Cracker, rice cake, corn (Taanug) | 137 | 30 | 41 |
| Cracker, saltine, hospital (Alliant) | 937 | 30 | 281 |
| Cracker, Keebler sandwich, club+cheddar, (Kellogg Co) | 1,830 | 30 | 549 |
| Cracker, toasted wheat | 917 | 30 | 275 |
| Cracker, wheat, round | 857 | 30 | 257 |
| Cracker, KA-ME rice crunch, plain (Liberty Richter, Bloomfield, NJ) | 917 | 30 | 275 |
| Popcorn, air popped, with butter | 133 | 30 | 40 |
| Popcorn, Pop Secret microwaved, fat free, no added fat (General Mills) | 33 | 30 | 10 |
| Pretzel, minis (Snyder’s of Hanover, Hanover, NJ) | 1,790 | 30 | 537 |
| Pretzel, Q rolled | 1,883 | 30 | 565 |
| Pretzel, stick | 1,600 | 30 | 480 |
| Pretzel (mean) | 1,757 | 30 | 527 |
| Veggie Booty (Robert’s American Gourmet, Seacliff, NY) | 983 | 30 | 295 |
| Cookies, cakes, pies, pastries | |||
| Bar, granola, chocolate chunk, soft (Quaker) | 507 | 30 | 152 |
| Bar, Nutrigrain, apple cinnamon (Kellogg’s) | 2,143 | 30 | 643 |
| Bar, Rice Krispies Treat (Kelloggs) | 1,920 | 30 | 576 |
| Bar,Granola, peanut butter & choc chunk, hard (Quaker) | 3,177 | 30 | 953 |
| Cake, angel food, Danish Kitchen (Sam’s Club, Bentonville, AR) | 27 | 30 | 8 |
| Cookie, biscotti, vanilla almond (Starbucks) | 3,220 | 30 | 966 |
| Cookie, chocolate chip, Chips Ahoy (Nabisco) | 1,683 | 30 | 505 |
| Cookie, Golden Bowl fortune (Wonton Food, Inc, Brooklyn, NY) | 90 | 30 | 27 |
| Cookie, Greek wedding, nut cookie | 960 | 30 | 288 |
| Cookie, meringue, homemade | 797 | 30 | 239 |
| Cookie, Keebler oatmeal raisin (Kellogg Co) | 1,370 | 30 | 411 |
| Cookie, Oreo (Nabisco) | 1,770 | 30 | 531 |
| Cookie, Nilla vanilla wafer (Nabisco) | 493 | 30 | 148 |
| Croissant, chocolate (Au Bon Pain, Boston, MA) | 493 | 30 | 148 |
| Danish, cheese (Au Bon Pain) | 857 | 30 | 257 |
| Donut, glazed devil’s food cake (Krispy Kreme, Winston-Salem, NC) | 1,407 | 30 | 422 |
| Donut, chocolate iced, crème filled (Krispy Kreme) | 1,803 | 30 | 541 |
| Fruit pop, frozen (Dole, Westlake Village, CA) | 18 | 60 | 11 |
| Fruit roll up, sizzlin’ red (General Mills) | 980 | 30 | 294 |
| Gelatin, Dole strawberry (Nestle, Minneapolis, MN) | 2 | 125 | 2 |
| Gelatin, Dole strawberry, sugar free (Nestle) | 1 | 125 | 1 |
| Ice cream cone, cake (Haagen Dazs, Oakland, CA) | 147 | 30 | 44 |
| Ice cream cone, sugar (Haagen Dazs) | 153 | 30 | 46 |
| Muffin, bran (Au Bon Pain) | 340 | 30 | 102 |
| Pie, apple, individual, baked (McDonald’sd) | 637 | 30 | 191 |
| Pie, crust, frozen, baked per pkg, mean Mrs. Smith’s Dutch Apple Crumb and Pumpkin Custard (Kellogg Co) | 1,390 | 30 | 417 |
| Pie, Mrs. Smith’s Dutch apple crumb, deep dish, apple filling (Kellogg Co) | 340 | 30 | 102 |
| Pie, Mrs. Smith’s Dutch apple crumb, deep dish, crumbs (Kellogg Co) | 1,030 | 30 | 309 |
| Pie, Mrs. Smith’s Dutch apple crumb, deep dish, crust (Kellogg Co) | 1,410 | 30 | 423 |
| Pie, Mrs. Smith’s Dutch apple crumb, deep dish, pie (Kellogg Co) | 893 | 30 | 268 |
| Pie, Mrs. Smith’s pumpkin custard, bake it fresh, original recipe, crust (Kellogg Co) | 1,373 | 30 | 412 |
| Pie, Mrs. Smith’s pumpkin custard, bake it fresh, original recipe, custard (Kellogg Co) | 617 | 30 | 185 |
| Pie, Mrs. Smith’s pumpkin custard, bake it fresh, original recipe, pie (Kellogg Co) | 880 | 30 | 264 |
| Pop tart, microwave-3 sec high power (Kellogg Co) | 243 | 30 | 73 |
| Pop tart, microwave-6 se medium high power (Kellogg’s) | 210 | 30 | 63 |
| Pop tart, not heated (Kellogg Co) | 133 | 30 | 40 |
| Pop tart, toaster-low, 1 cycle (Kellogg Co) | 260 | 30 | 78 |
| Scone, cinnamon (Starbucks) | 790 | 30 | 237 |
| Sorbet, Edy’s strawberry (Dryer’s, Oakland, CA) | 2 | 125 | 3 |
| Sweet roll, cinnamon swirl roll (Starbucks) | 907 | 30 | 272 |
| Fruits | |||
| Apple, baked | 45 | 100 | 45 |
| Apple, Macintosh | 13 | 100 | 13 |
| Banana | 9 | 100 | 9 |
| Cantaloupe | 20 | 100 | 20 |
| Coconut cream, Coco Goya cream of coconut (Goya, Secaucus, NJ) | 933 | 15 | 140 |
| Coconut milk, leche de coco, (Goya) | 307 | 15 | 46 |
| Coconut, Baker’s Angel Flake, sweetened (Kraft) | 590 | 30 | 177 |
| Dates, Sun-Maid California chopped (Sun-Maid, Kingsburg, CA) | 60 | 30 | 18 |
| Fig, dried | 2,663 | 30 | 799 |
| Plums, Sun-Maid dried pitted prunes (Sun-Maid) | 167 | 30 | 50 |
| Raisin, from Post Raisin Bran (Kellogg Co) | 120 | 30 | 36 |
| Vegetables (raw unless specified otherwise) | |||
| Carrots, canned | 10 | 100 | 10 |
| Celery | 43 | 100 | 43 |
| Cucumber | 31 | 100 | 31 |
| Eggplant, grilled, marinated with balsamic vinegarb | 256 | 100 | 256 |
| Eggplant, raw, marinated with balsamic vinegarb | 116 | 100 | 116 |
| Green beans, canned | 18 | 100 | 18 |
| Portabella mushroom, raw, marinated with balsamic vinegarb | 129 | 100 | 129 |
| Onion | 36 | 100 | 36 |
| Tomato | 23 | 100 | 23 |
| Tomato sauce (Del Monte Foods, San Francisco, CA) | 11 | 100 | 11 |
| Vegetables, grilled (broccoli, carrots, celery) | 226 | 100 | 226 |
| Vegetables, grilled (pepper, mushrooms) | 261 | 100 | 261 |
| Other carbohydrates | |||
| Sugar, white | 0 | 5 | 0 |
| Sugar substitute, aspartame as Canderel (Merisant, Chicago, IL) | 0 | 5 | 0 |
| AGE Content
|
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Liquids | AGE kU/100 mL | Serving size (mL) | AGE kU/serving |
| Milk and milk products | |||
| Cocoa packet, Swiss Miss, prepared (ConAgra Foods) | 262 | 250 | 656 |
| Cocoa packet, Swiss Miss sugar-free, prepared (ConAgra Foods) | 204 | 250 | 511 |
| Ice cream, America’s Choice vanilla (The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Co, Montvale, NJ) | 34 | 250 | 84 |
| Milk, fat-free (hospital) | 1 | 250 | 2 |
| Milk, Lactaid fat free (McNeil Nutritionals, Fort Washington, PA) | 10 | 250 | 26 |
| Milk, fat free (Tuscan Dairy Farms, Burlington, NJ) | 2 | 250 | 4 |
| Milk, fat free, with A and D | 0 | 250 | 1 |
| Milk, fat free, with A and D (microwaved,1 min) | 2 | 250 | 5 |
| Milk, fat free, with A and D (microwaved, 2 min) | 8 | 250 | 19 |
| Milk, fat free, with A and D (microwaved, 3 min) | 34 | 250 | 86 |
| Milk, soy (Imagine Foods, The Hain Celestial Group) | 31 | 250 | 77 |
| Milk, whole (4% fat) | 5 | 250 | 12 |
| Pudding, instant chocolate, fat-free, sugar-free, prepared | 1 | 120 | 1 |
| Pudding, instant chocolate, skim milk | 1 | 120 | 1 |
| Pudding, Hunt Wesson snack pack, chocolate (ConAgra Foods) | 17 | 120 | 20 |
| Pudding, Hunt Wesson snack pack, vanilla (ConAgra Foods) | 13 | 120 | 16 |
| Yogurt, cherry, (Dannon, White Plains, NY) | 4 | 250 | 10 |
| Yogurt, vanilla, (Dannon) | 3 | 250 | 8 |
| Fruit juice | |||
| Juice, apple | 2 | 250 | 5 |
| Juice, cranberry | 3 | 250 | 8 |
| Juice, orange | 6 | 250 | 14 |
| Juice, orange, from fresh fruit | 0 | 250 | 1 |
| Juice, orange, with calcium | 3 | 250 | 8 |
| Vegetable juice | |||
| Vegetable juice, V8 (Campbell Soup Co) | 2 | 250 | 5 |
| Other carbohydrate liquids | |||
| Fruit pop, frozen (Dole) | 18 | 60 | 11 |
| Honey | 7 | 15 | 1 |
| Sorbet, strawberry (Edy’s) | 2 | 125 | 3 |
| Syrup, caramel, sugar free | 0 | 15 | 0 |
| Syrup, dark corn | 0 | 15 | 0 |
| Syrup, pancake, lite | 0 | 15 | 0 |
| AGE Content
|
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Combination foods and solid condiments | AGE kU/100 g | Serving size (g) | AGE kU/serving |
| Combination foods | |||
| Bacon Egg Cheese Biscuit (McDonald’sd) | 2,289 | 100 | 2,289 |
| Bacon, Egg and Cheese McGriddles (McDonald’sd) | 858 | 100 | 858 |
| Big Mac (McDonald’sd) | 7,801 | 100 | 7,801 |
| Casserole, tuna | 233 | 100 | 233 |
| Cheeseburger (McDonald’sd) | 3,402 | 100 | 3,402 |
| Chicken McGrill (McDonald’sd) | 5,171 | 100 | 5,171 |
| Corned beef hash, canned, microwaved 2 min, high power (Broadcast) | 1,691 | 100 | 1,691 |
| Corned beef hash, canned, stove top, medium heat, 12 min (Broadcast) | 2,175 | 100 | 2,175 |
| Corned beef hash, canned, unheated (Broadcast) | 1,063 | 100 | 1,063 |
| Double Quarter Pounder With Cheese (McDonald’sd) | 6,283 | 100 | 6,283 |
| Filet-O-Fish (McDonald’sd) | 6,027 | 100 | 6,027 |
| Gnocchi, potato/flour/Parmesan cheese, 3 min | 535 | 100 | 535 |
| Gnocchi, potato/flour/Parmesan cheese, 4.5 min | 2,074 | 100 | 2,074 |
| Hot Pocket, bacon, egg, cheese, oven, 350°F, 20 min (Nestle) | 1,695 | 100 | 1,695 |
| Hot Pocket-bacon, egg, cheese, microwaved 1 min (Nestle) | 846 | 100 | 846 |
| Hot Pocket-bacon, egg, cheese, frozen-not heated (Nestle) | 558 | 100 | 558 |
| Hummus, commercial | 733 | 100 | 733 |
| Hummus, with garlic and scallions | 884 | 100 | 884 |
| Hummus, with vegetables | 487 | 100 | 487 |
| Hummus (mean) | 701 | 100 | 701 |
| Macaroni and cheeseb | 2,728 | 100 | 2,728 |
| Macaroni and cheese, bakedc | 4,070 | 100 | 4,070 |
| Pasta primavera | 959 | 100 | 959 |
| Pesto, with basil (Buitoni, Nestle) | 150 | 100 | 150 |
| Pizza, thin crust | 6,825 | 100 | 6,825 |
| Salad, Italian pastac | 935 | 100 | 935 |
| Salad, lentil potatoc | 123 | 100 | 123 |
| Salad, tuna pastac | 218 | 100 | 218 |
| Sandwich, cheese melt, open facedc | 5,679 | 100 | 5,679 |
| Sandwich, toasted cheese | 4,333 | 100 | 4,333 |
| Soufflé, spinachc | 598 | 100 | 598 |
| Timbale, broccolic | 122 | 100 | 122 |
| Taramosalata (Greek style caviar spread) | 678 | 100 | 678 |
| Veggie burger, California burger, 400°F, 8 min-4 each side (Amy’s Kitchen, Petaluma, CA) | 198 | 100 | 198 |
| Veggie burger, California burger, skillet, with spray, 5 min (Amy’s) | 149 | 100 | 149 |
| Veggie burger, California burger, skillet, with 1 tsp olive oil, 5 min (Amy’s) | 374 | 100 | 374 |
| Veggie burger, California burger, microwave, 1 min (Amy’s) | 68 | 100 | 68 |
| Won ton, pork, fried (take out) | 2,109 | 100 | 2,109 |
| Ziti, baked | 2,795 | 100 | 2,795 |
| Condiments | |||
| Ginger, crystallized | 490 | 10 | 49 |
| Candy, Hershey Special Dark Chocolate (The Hershey Co, Hershey, PA) | 1,777 | 30 | 533 |
| Candy, M & M’s, milk chocolate (Mars) | 1,500 | 30 | 450 |
| Candy, Reese’s Peanut Butter Cup (The Hershey Co) | 3,440 | 30 | 1,032 |
| Candy, Raisinets (Nestle) | 197 | 30 | 59 |
| Candy, Snickers (Nestle) | 263 | 30 | 79 |
| Pickle, bread and butter | 10 | 30 | 3 |
| AGE Content
|
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Soups, liquid condiments, and miscellaneous liquids | AGE kU/100 mL | Serving size (mL) | AGE kU/serving |
| Soups | |||
| Soup, beef bouillon | 0.40 | 250 | 1 |
| Soup, chicken bouillon | 1.20 | 250 | 3 |
| Soup, College Inn chicken broth, (Del Monte) | 0.80 | 250 | 2 |
| Soup, chicken noodle, (Campbell Soup Company) | 1.60 | 250 | 4 |
| Soup, couscous and lentil (Fantastic World Foods, Edison, NJ) | 3.60 | 250 | 9 |
| Soup, Knorr vegetable broth, (Unilever) | 1.60 | 250 | 4 |
| Soup, summer vegetablec | 1.20 | 250 | 3 |
| Condiments | |||
| Ketchup | 13.33 | 15 | 2 |
| Mustard | 0.00 | 15 | 0 |
| Pectin | 80.00 | 15 | 12 |
| Soy sauce | 60.00 | 15 | 9 |
| Vinegar, balsamic | 33.33 | 15 | 5 |
| Vinegar, white | 40.00 | 15 | 6 |
| Miscellaneous | |||
| SoBe Adrenaline Rush (South Beach Beverage Co, Norwalk, CT) | 0.40 | 250 | 1 |
| Budwiser Beer (Anheuser-Busch, St Louis, MO) | 1.20 | 250 | 3 |
| Breast milk, fresh | 6.67 | 30 | 2 |
| Breast milk, frozen | 10.00 | 30 | 3 |
| Coca Cola, classic (The Coca-Cola Co, Atlanta, GA) | 2.80 | 250 | 7 |
| Coffee, with milk and sugar | 2.40 | 250 | 6 |
| Coffee, drip method | 1.60 | 250 | 4 |
| Coffee, heating plate >1 h | 13.60 | 250 | 34 |
| Coffee, Taster’s Choice instant (Nestle) | 4.80 | 250 | 12 |
| Coffee, instant, decaf (mean Sanka [Kraft] and Taster’s Choice) | 5.20 | 250 | 13 |
| Coffee, Spanish | 4.80 | 250 | 12 |
| Coffee, with milk | 6.80 | 250 | 17 |
| Coffee, with sugar | 7.60 | 250 | 19 |
| Coke | 6.40 | 250 | 16 |
| Coke, Diet (The Coca-Cola Company) | 1.20 | 250 | 3 |
| Coke, Diet 2008 (The Coca-Cola Company) | 4.00 | 250 | 10 |
| Coke, Diet plus (The Coca-Cola Company) | 1.60 | 250 | 4 |
| Enfamil, old (Mead Johnson Nutritonal, Glenview, IL) | 486.67 | 30 | 146 |
| Ensure plus | 12.80 | 250 | 32 |
| Gelatin, Dole strawberry (Nestle) | 1.60 | 125 | 2 |
| Gelatin, Dole strawberry, sugar free (Nestle) | 0.80 | 125 | 1 |
| Glucerna (Abbott Nutrition, Columbus, OH) | 70.00 | 250 | 175 |
| Malta (Goya) | 1.20 | 250 | 3 |
| NOFEAR Super Energy Supplement (Pepsico, Purchase, NY) | 0.40 | 250 | 1 |
| Pepsi, diet (Pepsico) | 2.80 | 250 | 7 |
| Pepsi, diet MAX (Pepsico) | 3.20 | 250 | 8 |
| Pepsi, diet, caffeine free (Pepsico) | 2.40 | 250 | 6 |
| Pepsi, regular (Pepsico) | 2.40 | 250 | 6 |
| Resource (Nestle) | 72.00 | 250 | 180 |
| Rum, Bacardi Superior, 80 proof (Miami, FL) | 0.00 | 250 | 0 |
| Sprite (The Coca-Cola Company) | 1.60 | 250 | 4 |
| Sprite, diet (The Coca-Cola Company) | 0.40 | 250 | 1 |
| Tea, apple (RC Bigelow, Inc, Fairfield, CT) | 0.40 | 250 | 1 |
| Tea, Lipton Tea bag (Unilever) | 2.00 | 250 | 5 |
| Tea, Lipton Tea bag, decaf (Unilever) | 1.20 | 250 | 3 |
| Vodka, Smirnoff, 80 proof (Diageo, London, UK) | 0.00 | 250 | 0 |
| Whiskey, Dewar’s White Label (Dewar’s, Perthsire, UK) | 0.40 | 250 | 1 |
| Wine, pinot grigio (Cavit Collection, Port Washington, NY) | 32.80 | 250 | 82 |
| Wine, pinot noir (Cavit Collection) | 11.20 | 250 | 28 |
AGEs were assessed as carboxymethyllysine by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
MSC=Mount Sinai Hospital cafeteria.
CRC=Mount Sinai Hospital Clinical Research Center.
All McDonald’s products were purchased in New York, NY, before July 2008.
Preparation of food samples for AGE measurement was performed as previously described (13). Briefly, food samples were homogenized and dissolved in phosphate buffer saline and the supernatants tested for AGEs with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on a monoclonal anti-CML antibody (4G9) (29,30). The AGE content of each food item was based on the mean value of at least three measurements per sample and expressed as AGE kilounits/100 g food.
Selected items from different food categories were tested by a second enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for content of MG-derivatives using an anti-MG monoclonal antibody (3D11 mAb) (29) and the results were expressed as nmol/100 g or nmol/100 mL food. The test sensitivity for CML and MG was 0.1 U/mL and 0.004 nmol/mL, respectively; the intra-assay variation was ±2.6% (CML) and ±2.8% (MG) and the inter-assay variation was ±4.1% (CML) and ±5.2% (MG).
AGE Inhibitory Agents
Because a low or acidic pH arrests AGE development, new AGE formation in cooked meat was tested following exposure to acidic solutions (marinades) of lemon juice and vinegar. Samples from lean beef were marinated in acidic solutions of either lemon or vinegar for 1 hour before cooking (see the Figure). In addition, the effect of a prototypic AGE inhibitor (aminoguanidine, 200 μmol/L) was compared to that of a lipid antioxidant (butylated hydroxytoluene [BHT], 100 μmol/L) on new AGE formation during heating by assessing CML content in oil (extra virgin olive oil, Colavita, Linden, NJ) samples, heated at 100°C for 5 minutes.
Figure.
Effect of acidic environment on the advanced glycation end product (AGE) content of beef. Beef (25 g) was roasted for 15 minutes at 150°C with or without premarinating in 10 mL vinegar (A) or lemon juice (B) for 1 hour. Samples were homogenized and AGE (Nε-carboxy-methyl-lysine) content was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay as described in the Methods section. Data are shown as % change from raw state. White bars represent raw state, hatched bars roasted without marinating and black bars marinated samples. *Significant changes compared to the raw state (P<0.05). #Significant changes compared to cooked without marinating samples. 1=raw beef. 2=roasted beef with no vinegar or lemon. 3=roasted beef after marinating with either vinegar or lemon for 1 hour.
Statistical Analysis
Data in the Table 1 (available online at www.adajournal.org), Table 2, and the Figure are presented as mean±standard error of the mean. Differences of mean values between groups were tested by unpaired Student t test or analysis of variance (followed by Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons), depending on the number of groups. For nonparametric values, the Mann-Whitney U unpaired test or the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of ranks was used, depending on the number of groups. Correlation analyses were evaluated by Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Significant differences were defined as a P value <0.05 and are based on two-sided tests. Data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical program (version 15.0 for Windows, 2005, SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL). For data presentation, food groups were based on the American Diabetes Association and the American Dietetic Association exchange lists for diabetes (31).
Table 2.
Database of combined methylyglyoxal (MG) and carboxymetyllysine (CML) content of selected foods
| Advanced Glycation End Product Content
|
||
|---|---|---|
| Food item | Total MG nmol/100 g | Total CML kU/100 g |
| Solid foods (per 100 g food) | ||
| Bread, white | 3,630 | 8.3 |
| Bread, wheat | 4,840 | 105 |
| Cereal, Life (Quaker Oats, Chicago, IL) | 9,000 | 1,452 |
| Cheese, American | 16,790 | 8,677 |
| Cheese, Brie | 5,670 | 5,598 |
| Chicken, grilled | 14,440 | 4,848 |
| Chicken, microwaved (5 min) | 8,350 | 1,524 |
| Chicken, raw | 4,170 | 769 |
| Crackers, Pepperidge Farms Goldfish (Campbell Soup Co, Camden, NJ) | 4,170 | 2,176 |
| Egg, fried | 13,670 | 2,749 |
| French fries | 13,130 | 843 |
| Margarine, Smart Balance (CFA Brands, Heart Beat Foods, Paramus, NJ) | 10,790 | 6,229 |
| Salmon, broiled with olive oil | 14,950 | 4,334 |
| Salmon, broiled, plain | 9,350 | 3,347 |
| Salmon, pan fried in olive oil | 9,090 | 3,083 |
| Salmon, raw | 6,820 | 527 |
| Salmon, raw, previously frozen | 6,190 | 517 |
| Steak, broiled, plain | 17,670 | 7,478 |
| Steak, pan fried in olive oil | 18,150 | 10,058 |
| Steak, raw | 5,860 | 800 |
| Tuna, solid white packed in water | 4,060 | 452 |
| Total MG nmol/100 mL | Total CML kU/100 mL | |
|
| ||
| Liquids (per 100 mL food) | ||
| Ice cream, vanilla | 620 | 352 |
| Milk, whole | 620 | 4.9 |
| Olive oil, fresh (Colavita, Linden, NJ) | 7,700 | 5,852 |
| Olive oil, heated at 100°C for 5 min (Colavita, Linden, NJ) | 9,700 | 6,295 |
| Olive oil, heated at 100°C for 5 min + butylated hydroxytoluene (Colavita, Linden, NJ) | 8,200 | 6,682 |
| Olive oil, heated at 100°C for 5 min + aminoguanidine (Colavita, Linden, NJ) | 7,900 | 5,763 |
| Pudding, chocolate | 160 | 16 |
| Pudding, vanilla | 110 | 13 |
| Yogurt, Dannon (White Plains, NY) | 830 | 3 |
| Coke, diet (Coca-Cola Co, Atlanta, GA) | 334 | 4 |
| Coke, Diet Plus (Coca-Cola Co, Atlanta, GA) | 422 | 2 |
| Coca Cola Classic (Coca-Cola Co, Atlanta, GA) | 13 | 3 |
| Pepsi, diet (PepsiCo, Purchase, NY) | 33 | 3 |
| Pepsi, regular (PepsiCo, Purchase, NY) | 325 | 2 |
| Pepsi, diet, caffeine free (PepsiCo, Purchase, NY) | 201 | 2.6 |
| Pepsi Max, diet (PepsiCo, Purchase, NY) | 202 | 3.3 |
| SoBe Adrenaline Rush (South Beach Beverage Co, Norwalk, CT) | 821 | 0.4 |
| SoBe NO FEAR Super Energy (South Beach Beverage Co, Norwalk, CT) | 339 | 0.06 |
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
AGE Content of Foods as Determined by CML Levels
The AGE content in 549 foods, based on CML, is presented in Table 1 (available online at www.adajournal.org).
The new database contains more than twice the number of food items than the previously reported database (13) and shows that, based on standard serving sizes, the meat group contained the highest levels of AGEs. Although fats tend to contain more dAGE per gram of weight, meats will likely contribute more to overall dAGE intake because meats are served in larger portions than are fats. When items in the meat category prepared by similar methods were compared, the highest dAGE levels were observed in beef and cheeses followed by poultry, pork, fish, and eggs. Lamb ranked relatively low in dAGEs compared to other meats (Table 1 available online at www.adajournal.org). It is noteworthy that even lean red meats and poultry contain high levels of dAGEs when cooked under dry heat. This is attributable to the fact that among the intracellular components of lean muscle there exist highly reactive amino-lipids, as well as reducing sugars, such as fructose or glucose-6-phosphate, the combination of which in the presence of heat rapidly accelerates new dAGE formation (30,32).
Higher-fat and aged cheeses, such as full-fat American and Parmesan, contained more dAGEs than lower-fat cheeses, such as reduced-fat mozzarella, 2% milk cheddar, and cottage cheese. Whereas cooking is known to drive the generation of new AGEs in foods, it is interesting to note that even uncooked, animal-derived foods such as cheeses can contain large amounts of dAGEs. This is likely due to pasteurization and/or holding times at ambient room temperatures (eg, as in curing or aging processes) (33). Glycation-oxidation reactions, although at a slower rate, continue to occur over time even at cool temperatures, resulting in large accumulation of dAGEs in the long term.
High-fat spreads, including butter, cream cheese, margarine, and mayonnaise, were also among the foods highest in dAGEs, followed by oils and nuts. As with certain cheeses, butter and different types of oils are AGE-rich, even in their uncooked forms. This may be due to various extraction and purification procedures involving heat, in combination with air and dry conditions, however mild they are.
Of note, with heat kept constant, the type of cooking fat used led to different amounts of dAGEs. For instance, scrambled eggs prepared with a cooking spray, margarine, or oil had ~50% to 75% less dAGEs than if cooked with butter (Table 1 available online at www.adajournal.org).
In comparison to the meat and fat groups, the carbohydrate group generally contained lower amounts of AGEs (Table 1 available online at www.adajournal.org). This may be due to the often higher water content or higher level of antioxidants and vitamins in these foods, which may diminish new AGE formation. Furthermore, in this food category, most polysaccharides consist of non-reducing sugars, less likely to give rise to AGEs. The highest dAGE level per gram of food in this category was found in dry-heat processed foods such as crackers, chips, and cookies. This is likely due to the addition of ingredients such as butter, oil, cheese, eggs, and nuts, which during dry-heat processing substantially accelerate dAGE generation. Although AGEs in these snack types of food remain far below those present in meats, they may represent an important health hazard for people who consume multiple snacks during the day or as fast meals (34).
Grains, legumes, breads, vegetables, fruits, and milk were among the lowest items in dAGE, unless prepared with added fats. For instance, biscuits had more than 10 times the amount of dAGEs found in low-fat breads, rolls, or bagels.
Nonfat milk had significantly lower dAGEs than whole milk. Whereas heating increased the dAGE content of milk, the values were modest and remained low relative to those of cheeses (Table 1 available online at www.adajournal.org). Likewise, milk-related products with a high moisture index such as yogurt, pudding, and ice cream were also relatively low in AGEs. However, hot cocoa made from a dehydrated concentrate contained significantly higher amounts of AGEs.
AGE Content of Foods as Determined by MG Levels
Selected common foods were simultaneously analyzed for MG derivatives to determine whether food AGEs other than CML followed the same pattern (Table 2). A highly significant linear correlation (r=0.8, P=0.0001) was observed between the CML and MG content of foods prepared by different cooking techniques. As with CML, foods high in protein and fat contained higher amounts of MG than did carbohydrate-rich foods. Noncooked butter and oil contained low amounts of MG, but in dry-heated fat, as in french fries, MG content was significantly higher (Table 2). The highly significant internal correlation between two chemically distinct AGEs (CML and MG) in a variety of foods prepared by different methods validates the methodology applied and supports the choice of CML levels as a useful marker of dAGE content.
Effect of Cooking Procedures on AGE Formation in Foods
Preparation of common foods under varying conditions of water and heat had a different effect on dAGE content. For example, scrambled eggs prepared in an open pan over medium-low heat had about one half the dAGEs of eggs prepared in the same way but over high heat. Poached or steamed chicken had less than one fourth the dAGEs of roasted or broiled chicken. In all food categories, exposure to higher temperatures and lower moisture levels coincided with higher dAGE levels for equal weight of food as compared to foods prepared at lower temperatures or with more moisture. Thus, frying, broiling, grilling, and roasting yielded more dAGEs compared to boiling, poaching, stewing, and steaming. Microwaving did not raise dAGE content to the same extent as other dry heat cooking methods for the relatively short cooking times (6 minutes or less) that were tested.
Effect of AGE Inhibitors on New AGE Formation in Foods
The heat-induced new AGE formation in olive oil was completely prevented in the presence of the AGE inhibitor, aminoguanidine, but only partly blocked by the anti-oxidant BHT (Table 2). The amelioration of new AGE formation by the AGE inhibitor aminoguanidine compared to the anti-oxidant BHT suggests that the process seems to be driven by glycation rather than oxidation.
New AGE formation in cooked meat was also inhibited following exposure to acidic solutions (marinades) of lemon juice and vinegar. Beef that was marinated for 1 hour in these solutions formed less than half the amount of AGEs during cooking than the untreated samples (Figure).
Implications for Practice
Currently, there are limited data on dAGE intakes in the general population. The average dAGE intake in a cohort of healthy adults from the New York City area was recently found to be 14,700±680 AGE kU/day (24). These data could tentatively be used to define a high- or low-AGE diet, depending on whether the estimated daily AGE intake is significantly greater or less than 15,000 kU AGE. From the data presented in Table 1 (available online at www.adajournal.org), it is easy to see how people who consume a diet rich in grilled or roasted meats, fats, and highly processed foods could achieve a dAGE intake in excess of 20,000 kU/day. Conversely, people who regularly consume lower-meat meals prepared with moist heat (such as soups and stews) as part of a diet rich in plant foods could realistically consume half the daily intake seen in this cohort. A safe and optimal dAGE intake for the purposes of disease prevention has yet to be established. However, in animal studies, a reduction of dAGE by 50% of usual intake is associated with reduced levels of oxidative stress, less deterioration of insulin sensitivity and kidney function with age, and longer life span (16).
Reducing dAGE may be especially important for people with diabetes, who generate more endogenous AGEs than those without diabetes (5) and for those with renal disease, who have impaired AGE clearance from the body (14). Recently there has been heightened interest in therapeutic diets that are higher in protein and fat and lower in carbohydrate for weight loss, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (35–41). This type of dietary pattern may substantially raise dAGE intake and thus contribute to health problems over the long term.
CONCLUSIONS
AGEs in the diet represent pathogenic compounds that have been linked to the induction and progression of many chronic diseases. This report reinforces previous observations that high temperature and low moisture consistently and strongly drive AGE formation in foods, whereas comparatively brief heating time, low temperatures, high moisture, and/or pre-exposure to an acidified environment are effective strategies to limit new AGE formation in food (13). The potentially negative effects of traditional forms of cooking and food processing have typically remained outside the realm of health considerations. However, accumulation of AGEs due to the systematic heating and processing of foods offers a new explanation for the adverse health effects associated with the Western diet, reaching beyond the question of over-nutrition.
The current dAGE database demonstrates that a significantly reduced intake of dAGEs can be achieved by increasing the consumption of fish, legumes, low-fat milk products, vegetables, fruits, and whole grains and by reducing intake of solid fats, fatty meats, full-fat dairy products, and highly processed foods. These guidelines are consistent with recommendations by organizations such as the American Heart Association (42), the American Institute for Cancer Research (43), and the American Diabetes Association (44). It should, therefore, be possible to integrate this new evidence into established guidelines for disease prevention as well as medical nutrition therapy for a wide variety of conditions.
Equally important, consumers can be educated about low-AGE–generating cooking methods such as poaching, steaming, stewing, and boiling. For example, the high AGE content of broiled chicken (5,828 kU/100 g) and broiled beef (5,963 kU/100 g) can be significantly reduced (1,124 kU/100 g and 2,230 kU/100 g, respectively) when the same piece of meat is either boiled or stewed. The use of acidic marinades, such as lemon juice and vinegar, before cooking can also be encouraged to limit dAGE generation. These culinary techniques have long been featured in Mediterranean, Asian, and other cuisines throughout the world to create palatable, easily prepared dishes.
The new database may have limitations, including the fact that foods were selected from diets common in a northeastern metropolitan US area, and may thus not represent the national average. Another limitation is that only two of many AGEs have been measured. However, the fact that both are associated with markers of disease in healthy subjects and are elevated in patients with diabetes and kidney disease lends credibility to their role as pathogens in foods consumed by the general public and persons with certain chronic diseases.
Ongoing studies are needed to further expand the dAGE database and investigate additional methods for reducing AGE generation during home cooking and food processing. Future studies should continue to investigate the health effects of AGEs and refine recommendations for safe dietary intakes. However, current data support the need for a paradigm shift that acknowledges that how we prepare and process food may be equally important as nutrient composition.
Acknowledgments
FUNDING/SUPPORT: This work was supported by the National Institute on Aging (MERIT AG-23188 and AG-09453) and by the National Institute of Research Resources, MO1-RR-00071, awarded to the General Clinical Research Center at Mount Sinai School of Medicine.
Footnotes
STATEMENT OF POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
References
- 1.Brownlee M. Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications. Nature. 2001;414:813–820. doi: 10.1038/414813a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Ulrich P, Cerami A. Protein glycation, diabetes, and aging. Recent Prog Horm Res. 2001;56:1–21. doi: 10.1210/rp.56.1.1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Vlassara H, Uribarri J. Glycoxidation and diabetic complications: Modern lessons and a warning? Rev Endocrin Metab Disord. 2004;5:181–188. doi: 10.1023/B:REMD.0000032406.84813.f6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Goldin A, Beckman JA, Schmidt AM, Creager MA. Advanced glycation end products: Sparking the development of diabetic vascular injury. Circulation. 2006;114:597–605. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.621854. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Huebschmann AG, Regensteiner JG, Vlassara H, Reusch JEB. Diabetes and advanced glycoxidation end products. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:1420–1432. doi: 10.2337/dc05-2096. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Bohlender JM, Franke S, Stein G, Wolf G. Advanced glycation end products and the kidney. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2005;289:F645–F659. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00398.2004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.O’Brien J, Morrissey PA. Nutritional and toxicological aspects of the Maillard browning reaction in foods. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 1989;28:211–248. doi: 10.1080/10408398909527499. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.Eble AS, Thorpe SR, Baynes JW. Nonenzymatic glycosylation and glucose-dependent cross-linking of proteins. J Biol Chem. 1983;258:9406–9412. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.Vlassara H. The AGE-receptor in the pathogenesis of diabetic complications. Diabetes Metab Rev. 2001;17:436–443. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.233. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Schmidt AM, Yan SD, Wautier JL, Stern D. Activation of receptor for advanced glycation end products: A mechanism for chronic vascular dysfunction in diabetic vasculopathy and atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 1999;84:489–497. doi: 10.1161/01.res.84.5.489. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Abordo EA, Minhas HS, Thornalley PJ. Accumulation of alpha-oxoaldehydes during oxidative stress: A role in cytotoxicity. Biochem Pharmacol. 1999;58:641–648. doi: 10.1016/s0006-2952(99)00132-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Fu MX, Requena JR, Jenkins AJ, Lyons TJ, Baynes JW, Thorpe SR. The advanced glycation endproduct N-[carboxymethyl]-lysine, is a product of both lipid peroxidation and glycoxidation reactions. J Biol Chem. 1996;271:9982–9986. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.17.9982. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Goldberg T, Cai W, Peppa M, Dardaine V, Baliga BS, Uribarri J, Vlassara H. Advanced glycoxidation end products in commonly consumed foods. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104:1287–1291. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2004.05.214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.Koschinsky T, He CJ, Mitsuhashi T, Bucala R, Liu C, Bueting C, Heitmann K, Vlassara H. Orally absorbed reactive advanced glycation end products (glycotoxins): An environmental risk factor in diabetic nephropathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1997;94:6474–6479. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.12.6474. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.He C, Sabol J, Mitsuhashi T, Vlassara H. Dietary glycotoxins: Inhibition of reactive products by aminoguanidine facilitates renal clearance and reduces tissue sequestration. Diabetes. 1999;48:1308–1315. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.48.6.1308. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Cai W, He JC, Zhu L, Chen X, Zheng F, Striker GE, Vlasara H. Oral glycotoxins determine the effects of calorie restriction on oxidant stress, age-related diseases, and lifespan. Am J Pathol. 2008;173:327–336. doi: 10.2353/ajpath.2008.080152. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Lin RY, Choudhury RP, Cai W, Lu M, Fallon JT, Fisher EA, Vlassara H. Dietary glycotoxins promote diabetic atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Atherosclerosis. 2003;168:213–220. doi: 10.1016/s0021-9150(03)00050-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Zheng F, He C, Cai W, Hattori M, Steffes M, Vlassara H. Prevention of diabetic nephropathy in mice by a diet low in glycoxidation products. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2002;18:224–237. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.283. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Lin RY, Reis ED, Dore AT, Lu M, Ghodsi N, Fallon JT, Fisher EA, Vlassara H. Lowering of dietary advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) reduces neointimal formation after arterial injury in genetically hypercholesterolemic mice. Atherosclerosis. 2002;163:303–311. doi: 10.1016/s0021-9150(02)00008-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Peppa M, He C, Hattori M, McEvoy R, Zheng F, Vlassara H. Fetal or neonatal low-glycotoxin environment prevents autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice. Diabetes. 2003;52:1441–1445. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.52.6.1441. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Hofmann SM, Dong HJ, Li Z, Cai W, Altomonte J, Thung SN, Zeng F, Fisher EA, Vlassara H. Improved insulin sensitivity is associated with restricted intake of dietary glycoxidation products in the db/db mouse. Diabetes. 2002;51:2082–2089. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.51.7.2082. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 22.Sandu O, Song K, Cai W, Zheng F, Uribarri J, Vlassara H. Insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes in high-fat-fed mice are linked to high glycotoxin intake. Diabetes. 2005;54:2314–2319. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.54.8.2314. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Peppa M, Brem H, Ehrlich P, Zhang JG, Cai W, Li Z, Croitoru A, Thung S, Vlassara H. Adverse effects of dietary glycotoxins on wound healing in genetically diabetic mice. Diabetes. 2003;52:2805–2813. doi: 10.2337/diabetes.52.11.2805. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Uribarri J, Cai W, Peppa M, Goodman S, Ferruci L, Striker G, Vlassara H. Circulating glycotoxins and dietary advanced glycation end-products: Two links to inflammatory response oxidative stress, and aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2007;62:427–433. doi: 10.1093/gerona/62.4.427. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.Vlassara H, Cai W, Crandall J, Goldberg T, Oberstein R, Dardaine V, Peppa M, Rayfield EJ. Inflammatory mediators are induced by dietary glycotoxins: A major risk factor for diabetic angiopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99:15596–15601. doi: 10.1073/pnas.242407999. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Uribarri J, Peppa M, Cai W, Goldberg T, Lu M, He C, Vlassara H. Restriction of dietary glycotoxins reduces excessive advanced glycation end products in renal failure patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14:728–731. doi: 10.1097/01.asn.0000051593.41395.b9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Uribarri J, Peppa M, Cai W, Goldberg T, Lu M, Baliga S, Vassalotti JA, Vlassara H. Dietary glycotoxins correlate with circulating advanced glycation end product levels in renal failure patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003;42:532–538. doi: 10.1016/s0272-6386(03)00779-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.Vlassara H, Cai W, Goodman S, Pyzik R, Yong A, Zhu L, Neade T, Beeri M, Silverman JM, Ferrucci L, Tansman L, Striker GE, Uribarri J. Protection against loss of innate defenses in adulthood by low AGE intake: Role of a new anti-inflammatory AGE-receptor-1. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94:4483–4491. doi: 10.1210/jc.2009-0089. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.Cai W, Gao QD, Zhu L, Peppa M, He C, Vlassara H. Oxidative stress-inducing carbonyl compounds from common foods: Novel mediators of cellular dysfunction. Mol Med. 2002;8:337–346. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 30.Bucala R, Makita Z, Koschinsky T, Cerami A, Vlassara H. Lipid advanced glycosylation: Pathway for lipid oxidation in vivo. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 1993;90:6434–6438. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.14.6434. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.Wheeler ML, Daly A, Evert A, Franz MJ, Geil P, Holzmeister LA, Kulkarni K, Loghmani E, Ross TA, Woolf P. Choose Your Foods: Exchange Lists for Diabetes, Sixth Edition, 2008: Description and guidelines for use. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108:883–888. [Google Scholar]
- 32.Levi B, Werman MJ. Fructose and related phosphate derivatives impose DNA damage and apoptosis in L5178Y mouse lymphoma cells. J Nutr Biochem. 2003;14:49–60. doi: 10.1016/s0955-2863(02)00254-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 33.Ahmed N, Mirshekar-Syahkal B, Kennish L, Karachalias N, Babaei-Jadidi R, Thornalley PJ. Assay of advanced glycation endproducts in selected beverages and food by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2005;49:691–699. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200500008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 34.Story M, Hayes M, Kalina B. Availability of foods in high schools: Is there cause for concern? J Am Diet Assoc. 1996;96:123–126. doi: 10.1016/S0002-8223(96)00039-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.Shai IS, Schwarzfuchs D, Henkin Y, Shahar DR, Witkow S, Greenberg I, Golan R, Fraser D, Bolotin A, Vardi H, Tangi-Rozental O, Zuk-Ramot R, Sarusi B, Brickner D, Schwartz Z, Sheiner E, Marko R, Katorza E, Thiery J, Fiedler GM, Blüher M, Stumvoll M, Stampfer MJ Dietary Intervention Randomized Controlled Trial (DIRECT) Group. Weight loss with a low-carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or low-fat diet. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:229–241. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0708681. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 36.Gardner CD, Kiazand A, Alhasan S, Kim S, Stafford RS, Balise RR, Kraemer H, King A. Comparison of the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN diets for change in weight and related risk factors among overweight premenopausal women. JAMA. 2007;297:969–977. doi: 10.1001/jama.297.9.969. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 37.Kirk JK, Graves DE, Craven TE, Lipkin EW, Austin M, Margolis KL. Restricted-carbohydrate diets in patients with type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108:91–100. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2007.10.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 38.Halton TL, Willett WC, Liu S, Manson JE, Albert CM, Rexrode K, Hu F. Low-carbohydrate diet score and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1991–2002. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa055317. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 39.Miller ER, Erlinger TP, Appel LJ. The effects of macronutrients on blood pressure and lipids: An overview of the DASH and OmniHeart trials. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2006;8:460–465. doi: 10.1007/s11883-006-0020-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 40.De Souza RJ, Swain JF, Appel LH, Sacks FM. Alternatives for macronutrient intake and chronic disease: A comparison of the Omni-Heart diets with popular diets and with dietary recommendations. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88:1–11. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/88.1.1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 41.Swain JF, McCarron PB, Hamilton EF, Sacks FM, Appel LJ. Characteristics of the diet patterns tested in the optimal macronutrient intake trial to prevent heart disease (OmniHeart): Options for a heart-healthy diet. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108:257–265. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2007.10.040. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 42.Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J. Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation. 2006;114:82–96. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.176158. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. Washington, DC: American Institute for Cancer Research; 2007. [Google Scholar]
- 44.American Diabetes Association position statement: Nutrition recommendations and interventions for Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(suppl):S61–S78. doi: 10.2337/dc08-S061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]