Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has a complex life cycle in which both cellular and virus-encoded factors participate to determine the level of virus production. Two of the viral genes, tat and rev, are essential for virus replication and encode novel trans-activators that interact specifically with their cognate RNA target elements. Elucidation of their mechanisms of action is likely to expand our knowledge of gene regulation at transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels in the eukaryotic cell. Several viral genes (vif, vpu, and vpr) facilitate virus infection and/or release and may play a role in target cell tropism and infection in vivo. The functions of yet other viral genes (nef, vpt) remain unclear. Recent data also suggest that the tat gene product may have a role in HIV pathogenesis that goes beyond trans-activating virus expression. It can potentially impact on uninfected cells as a diffusible molecule and alter the growth of different cell types.
Full text
PDF












Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Arya S. K., Guo C., Josephs S. F., Wong-Staal F. Trans-activator gene of human T-lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III). Science. 1985 Jul 5;229(4708):69–73. doi: 10.1126/science.2990040. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Benko D. M., Schwartz S., Pavlakis G. N., Felber B. K. A novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protein, tev, shares sequences with tat, env, and rev proteins. J Virol. 1990 Jun;64(6):2505–2518. doi: 10.1128/jvi.64.6.2505-2518.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Berkhout B., Gatignol A., Rabson A. B., Jeang K. T. TAR-independent activation of the HIV-1 LTR: evidence that tat requires specific regions of the promoter. Cell. 1990 Aug 24;62(4):757–767. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90120-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Berkhout B., Jeang K. T. trans activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 is sequence specific for both the single-stranded bulge and loop of the trans-acting-responsive hairpin: a quantitative analysis. J Virol. 1989 Dec;63(12):5501–5504. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.12.5501-5504.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Berkhout B., Silverman R. H., Jeang K. T. Tat trans-activates the human immunodeficiency virus through a nascent RNA target. Cell. 1989 Oct 20;59(2):273–282. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90289-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Braddock M., Chambers A., Wilson W., Esnouf M. P., Adams S. E., Kingsman A. J., Kingsman S. M. HIV-1 TAT "activates" presynthesized RNA in the nucleus. Cell. 1989 Jul 28;58(2):269–279. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90841-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Braddock M., Thorburn A. M., Chambers A., Elliott G. D., Anderson G. J., Kingsman A. J., Kingsman S. M. A nuclear translational block imposed by the HIV-1 U3 region is relieved by the Tat-TAR interaction. Cell. 1990 Sep 21;62(6):1123–1133. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90389-v. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brake D. A., Debouck C., Biesecker G. Identification of an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) cell adhesion site in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transactivation protein, tat. J Cell Biol. 1990 Sep;111(3):1275–1281. doi: 10.1083/jcb.111.3.1275. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Böhnlein E., Lowenthal J. W., Siekevitz M., Ballard D. W., Franza B. R., Greene W. C. The same inducible nuclear proteins regulates mitogen activation of both the interleukin-2 receptor-alpha gene and type 1 HIV. Cell. 1988 Jun 3;53(5):827–836. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90099-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Böhnlein E., Siekevitz M., Ballard D. W., Lowenthal J. W., Rimsky L., Bogérd H., Hoffman J., Wano Y., Franza B. R., Greene W. C. Stimulation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 enhancer by the human T-cell leukemia virus type I tax gene product involves the action of inducible cellular proteins. J Virol. 1989 Apr;63(4):1578–1586. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.4.1578-1586.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chang D. D., Sharp P. A. Regulation by HIV Rev depends upon recognition of splice sites. Cell. 1989 Dec 1;59(5):789–795. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90602-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cochrane A. W., Chen C. H., Rosen C. A. Specific interaction of the human immunodeficiency virus Rev protein with a structured region in the env mRNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Feb;87(3):1198–1202. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.3.1198. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cochrane A. W., Perkins A., Rosen C. A. Identification of sequences important in the nucleolar localization of human immunodeficiency virus Rev: relevance of nucleolar localization to function. J Virol. 1990 Feb;64(2):881–885. doi: 10.1128/jvi.64.2.881-885.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cohen E. A., Lu Y., Göttlinger H., Dehni G., Jalinoos Y., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A. The T open reading frame of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1990;3(6):601–608. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cohen E. A., Terwilliger E. F., Jalinoos Y., Proulx J., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A. Identification of HIV-1 vpr product and function. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1990;3(1):11–18. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cullen B. R., Hauber J., Campbell K., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A., Rosen C. A. Subcellular localization of the human immunodeficiency virus trans-acting art gene product. J Virol. 1988 Jul;62(7):2498–2501. doi: 10.1128/jvi.62.7.2498-2501.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cullen B. R. Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus occurs via a bimodal mechanism. Cell. 1986 Sep 26;46(7):973–982. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90696-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Daefler S., Klotman M. E., Wong-Staal F. Trans-activating rev protein of the human immunodeficiency virus 1 interacts directly and specifically with its target RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jun;87(12):4571–4575. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.12.4571. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Daly T. J., Cook K. S., Gray G. S., Maione T. E., Rusche J. R. Specific binding of HIV-1 recombinant Rev protein to the Rev-responsive element in vitro. Nature. 1989 Dec 14;342(6251):816–819. doi: 10.1038/342816a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dayton A. I., Sodroski J. G., Rosen C. A., Goh W. C., Haseltine W. A. The trans-activator gene of the human T cell lymphotropic virus type III is required for replication. Cell. 1986 Mar 28;44(6):941–947. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90017-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dayton E. T., Powell D. M., Dayton A. I. Functional analysis of CAR, the target sequence for the Rev protein of HIV-1. Science. 1989 Dec 22;246(4937):1625–1629. doi: 10.1126/science.2688093. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dillon P. J., Nelbock P., Perkins A., Rosen C. A. Function of the human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 Rev proteins is dependent on their ability to interact with a structured region present in env gene mRNA. J Virol. 1990 Sep;64(9):4428–4437. doi: 10.1128/jvi.64.9.4428-4437.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dingwall C., Ernberg I., Gait M. J., Green S. M., Heaphy S., Karn J., Lowe A. D., Singh M., Skinner M. A., Valerio R. Human immunodeficiency virus 1 tat protein binds trans-activation-responsive region (TAR) RNA in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Sep;86(18):6925–6929. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.18.6925. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ensoli B., Barillari G., Salahuddin S. Z., Gallo R. C., Wong-Staal F. Tat protein of HIV-1 stimulates growth of cells derived from Kaposi's sarcoma lesions of AIDS patients. Nature. 1990 May 3;345(6270):84–86. doi: 10.1038/345084a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ensoli B., Lusso P., Schachter F., Josephs S. F., Rappaport J., Negro F., Gallo R. C., Wong-Staal F. Human herpes virus-6 increases HIV-1 expression in co-infected T cells via nuclear factors binding to the HIV-1 enhancer. EMBO J. 1989 Oct;8(10):3019–3027. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1989.tb08452.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Feinberg M. B., Jarrett R. F., Aldovini A., Gallo R. C., Wong-Staal F. HTLV-III expression and production involve complex regulation at the levels of splicing and translation of viral RNA. Cell. 1986 Sep 12;46(6):807–817. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90062-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Felber B. K., Hadzopoulou-Cladaras M., Cladaras C., Copeland T., Pavlakis G. N. rev protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 affects the stability and transport of the viral mRNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Mar;86(5):1495–1499. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.5.1495. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Felber B. K., Pavlakis G. N. A quantitative bioassay for HIV-1 based on trans-activation. Science. 1988 Jan 8;239(4836):184–187. doi: 10.1126/science.3422113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Feng S., Holland E. C. HIV-1 tat trans-activation requires the loop sequence within tar. Nature. 1988 Jul 14;334(6178):165–167. doi: 10.1038/334165a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fisher A. G., Ensoli B., Ivanoff L., Chamberlain M., Petteway S., Ratner L., Gallo R. C., Wong-Staal F. The sor gene of HIV-1 is required for efficient virus transmission in vitro. Science. 1987 Aug 21;237(4817):888–893. doi: 10.1126/science.3497453. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fisher A. G., Feinberg M. B., Josephs S. F., Harper M. E., Marselle L. M., Reyes G., Gonda M. A., Aldovini A., Debouk C., Gallo R. C. The trans-activator gene of HTLV-III is essential for virus replication. 1986 Mar 27-Apr 2Nature. 320(6060):367–371. doi: 10.1038/320367a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Frankel A. D., Bredt D. S., Pabo C. O. Tat protein from human immunodeficiency virus forms a metal-linked dimer. Science. 1988 Apr 1;240(4848):70–73. doi: 10.1126/science.2832944. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Frankel A. D., Pabo C. O. Cellular uptake of the tat protein from human immunodeficiency virus. Cell. 1988 Dec 23;55(6):1189–1193. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90263-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Franza B. R., Jr, Josephs S. F., Gilman M. Z., Ryan W., Clarkson B. Characterization of cellular proteins recognizing the HIV enhancer using a microscale DNA-affinity precipitation assay. 1987 Nov 26-Dec 2Nature. 330(6146):391–395. doi: 10.1038/330391a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Franza B. R., Jr, Rauscher F. J., 3rd, Josephs S. F., Curran T. The Fos complex and Fos-related antigens recognize sequence elements that contain AP-1 binding sites. Science. 1988 Mar 4;239(4844):1150–1153. doi: 10.1126/science.2964084. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Friedman A. D., Triezenberg S. J., McKnight S. L. Expression of a truncated viral trans-activator selectively impedes lytic infection by its cognate virus. Nature. 1988 Sep 29;335(6189):452–454. doi: 10.1038/335452a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Garcia J. A., Harrich D., Pearson L., Mitsuyasu R., Gaynor R. B. Functional domains required for tat-induced transcriptional activation of the HIV-1 long terminal repeat. EMBO J. 1988 Oct;7(10):3143–3147. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb03181.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Garcia J. A., Wu F. K., Mitsuyasu R., Gaynor R. B. Interactions of cellular proteins involved in the transcriptional regulation of the human immunodeficiency virus. EMBO J. 1987 Dec 1;6(12):3761–3770. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02711.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gatignol A., Kumar A., Rabson A., Jeang K. T. Identification of cellular proteins that bind to the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 trans-activation-responsive TAR element RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Oct;86(20):7828–7832. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.20.7828. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gaynor R., Soultanakis E., Kuwabara M., Garcia J., Sigman D. S. Specific binding of a HeLa cell nuclear protein to RNA sequences in the human immunodeficiency virus transactivating region. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Jul;86(13):4858–4862. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.13.4858. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gentz R., Chen C. H., Rosen C. A. Bioassay for trans-activation using purified human immunodeficiency virus tat-encoded protein: trans-activation requires mRNA synthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Feb;86(3):821–824. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.3.821. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Giniger E., Ptashne M. Transcription in yeast activated by a putative amphipathic alpha helix linked to a DNA binding unit. Nature. 1987 Dec 17;330(6149):670–672. doi: 10.1038/330670a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Guyader M., Emerman M., Montagnier L., Peden K. VPX mutants of HIV-2 are infectious in established cell lines but display a severe defect in peripheral blood lymphocytes. EMBO J. 1989 Apr;8(4):1169–1175. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1989.tb03488.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hadzopoulou-Cladaras M., Felber B. K., Cladaras C., Athanassopoulos A., Tse A., Pavlakis G. N. The rev (trs/art) protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 affects viral mRNA and protein expression via a cis-acting sequence in the env region. J Virol. 1989 Mar;63(3):1265–1274. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.3.1265-1274.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hammarskjöld M. L., Heimer J., Hammarskjöld B., Sangwan I., Albert L., Rekosh D. Regulation of human immunodeficiency virus env expression by the rev gene product. J Virol. 1989 May;63(5):1959–1966. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.5.1959-1966.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hart C. E., Ou C. Y., Galphin J. C., Moore J., Bacheler L. T., Wasmuth J. J., Petteway S. R., Jr, Schochetman G. Human chromosome 12 is required for elevated HIV-1 expression in human-hamster hybrid cells. Science. 1989 Oct 27;246(4929):488–491. doi: 10.1126/science.2683071. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hattori N., Michaels F., Fargnoli K., Marcon L., Gallo R. C., Franchini G. The human immunodeficiency virus type 2 vpr gene is essential for productive infection of human macrophages. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Oct;87(20):8080–8084. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.20.8080. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hauber J., Bouvier M., Malim M. H., Cullen B. R. Phosphorylation of the rev gene product of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 1988 Dec;62(12):4801–4804. doi: 10.1128/jvi.62.12.4801-4804.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hauber J., Cullen B. R. Mutational analysis of the trans-activation-responsive region of the human immunodeficiency virus type I long terminal repeat. J Virol. 1988 Mar;62(3):673–679. doi: 10.1128/jvi.62.3.673-679.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hauber J., Malim M. H., Cullen B. R. Mutational analysis of the conserved basic domain of human immunodeficiency virus tat protein. J Virol. 1989 Mar;63(3):1181–1187. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.3.1181-1187.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hauber J., Perkins A., Heimer E. P., Cullen B. R. Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus gene expression is mediated by nuclear events. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Sep;84(18):6364–6368. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.18.6364. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Heaphy S., Dingwall C., Ernberg I., Gait M. J., Green S. M., Karn J., Lowe A. D., Singh M., Skinner M. A. HIV-1 regulator of virion expression (Rev) protein binds to an RNA stem-loop structure located within the Rev response element region. Cell. 1990 Feb 23;60(4):685–693. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90671-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Herskowitz I. Functional inactivation of genes by dominant negative mutations. Nature. 1987 Sep 17;329(6136):219–222. doi: 10.1038/329219a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hidaka M., Inoue J., Yoshida M., Seiki M. Post-transcriptional regulator (rex) of HTLV-1 initiates expression of viral structural proteins but suppresses expression of regulatory proteins. EMBO J. 1988 Feb;7(2):519–523. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb02840.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jacks T., Power M. D., Masiarz F. R., Luciw P. A., Barr P. J., Varmus H. E. Characterization of ribosomal frameshifting in HIV-1 gag-pol expression. Nature. 1988 Jan 21;331(6153):280–283. doi: 10.1038/331280a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jakobovits A., Smith D. H., Jakobovits E. B., Capon D. J. A discrete element 3' of human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2 mRNA initiation sites mediates transcriptional activation by an HIV trans activator. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Jun;8(6):2555–2561. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.6.2555. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones K. A., Kadonaga J. T., Luciw P. A., Tjian R. Activation of the AIDS retrovirus promoter by the cellular transcription factor, Sp1. Science. 1986 May 9;232(4751):755–759. doi: 10.1126/science.3008338. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones K. A., Luciw P. A., Duchange N. Structural arrangements of transcription control domains within the 5'-untranslated leader regions of the HIV-1 and HIV-2 promoters. Genes Dev. 1988 Sep;2(9):1101–1114. doi: 10.1101/gad.2.9.1101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kao S. Y., Calman A. F., Luciw P. A., Peterlin B. M. Anti-termination of transcription within the long terminal repeat of HIV-1 by tat gene product. Nature. 1987 Dec 3;330(6147):489–493. doi: 10.1038/330489a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kim S. Y., Byrn R., Groopman J., Baltimore D. Temporal aspects of DNA and RNA synthesis during human immunodeficiency virus infection: evidence for differential gene expression. J Virol. 1989 Sep;63(9):3708–3713. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.9.3708-3713.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Klatzmann D., Barré-Sinoussi F., Nugeyre M. T., Danquet C., Vilmer E., Griscelli C., Brun-Veziret F., Rouzioux C., Gluckman J. C., Chermann J. C. Selective tropism of lymphadenopathy associated virus (LAV) for helper-inducer T lymphocytes. Science. 1984 Jul 6;225(4657):59–63. doi: 10.1126/science.6328660. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Laspia M. F., Rice A. P., Mathews M. B. HIV-1 Tat protein increases transcriptional initiation and stabilizes elongation. Cell. 1989 Oct 20;59(2):283–292. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90290-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Levy J. A., Cheng-Mayer C., Dina D., Luciw P. A. AIDS retrovirus (ARV-2) clone replicates in transfected human and animal fibroblasts. Science. 1986 May 23;232(4753):998–1001. doi: 10.1126/science.3010461. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lu Y., Stenzel M., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A. Effects of long terminal repeat mutations on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication. J Virol. 1989 Sep;63(9):4115–4119. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.9.4115-4119.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lusso P., Ensoli B., Markham P. D., Ablashi D. V., Salahuddin S. Z., Tschachler E., Wong-Staal F., Gallo R. C. Productive dual infection of human CD4+ T lymphocytes by HIV-1 and HHV-6. Nature. 1989 Jan 26;337(6205):370–373. doi: 10.1038/337370a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Maddon P. J., Dalgleish A. G., McDougal J. S., Clapham P. R., Weiss R. A., Axel R. The T4 gene encodes the AIDS virus receptor and is expressed in the immune system and the brain. Cell. 1986 Nov 7;47(3):333–348. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90590-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Malim M. H., Böhnlein S., Hauber J., Cullen B. R. Functional dissection of the HIV-1 Rev trans-activator--derivation of a trans-dominant repressor of Rev function. Cell. 1989 Jul 14;58(1):205–214. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90416-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Malim M. H., Hauber J., Le S. Y., Maizel J. V., Cullen B. R. The HIV-1 rev trans-activator acts through a structured target sequence to activate nuclear export of unspliced viral mRNA. Nature. 1989 Mar 16;338(6212):254–257. doi: 10.1038/338254a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Malim M. H., Tiley L. S., McCarn D. F., Rusche J. R., Hauber J., Cullen B. R. HIV-1 structural gene expression requires binding of the Rev trans-activator to its RNA target sequence. Cell. 1990 Feb 23;60(4):675–683. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90670-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Marciniak R. A., Garcia-Blanco M. A., Sharp P. A. Identification and characterization of a HeLa nuclear protein that specifically binds to the trans-activation-response (TAR) element of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 May;87(9):3624–3628. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.9.3624. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Matsukura M., Zon G., Shinozuka K., Robert-Guroff M., Shimada T., Stein C. A., Mitsuya H., Wong-Staal F., Cohen J. S., Broder S. Regulation of viral expression of human immunodeficiency virus in vitro by an antisense phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide against rev (art/trs) in chronically infected cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Jun;86(11):4244–4248. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.11.4244. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- McCune J. M., Rabin L. B., Feinberg M. B., Lieberman M., Kosek J. C., Reyes G. R., Weissman I. L. Endoproteolytic cleavage of gp160 is required for the activation of human immunodeficiency virus. Cell. 1988 Apr 8;53(1):55–67. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90487-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mosca J. D., Bednarik D. P., Raj N. B., Rosen C. A., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A., Pitha P. M. Herpes simplex virus type-1 can reactivate transcription of latent human immunodeficiency virus. Nature. 1987 Jan 1;325(6099):67–70. doi: 10.1038/325067a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Muesing M. A., Smith D. H., Capon D. J. Regulation of mRNA accumulation by a human immunodeficiency virus trans-activator protein. Cell. 1987 Feb 27;48(4):691–701. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90247-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nabel G., Baltimore D. An inducible transcription factor activates expression of human immunodeficiency virus in T cells. Nature. 1987 Apr 16;326(6114):711–713. doi: 10.1038/326711a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nakamura S., Salahuddin S. Z., Biberfeld P., Ensoli B., Markham P. D., Wong-Staal F., Gallo R. C. Kaposi's sarcoma cells: long-term culture with growth factor from retrovirus-infected CD4+ T cells. Science. 1988 Oct 21;242(4877):426–430. doi: 10.1126/science.3262925. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nelbock P., Dillon P. J., Perkins A., Rosen C. A. A cDNA for a protein that interacts with the human immunodeficiency virus Tat transactivator. Science. 1990 Jun 29;248(4963):1650–1653. doi: 10.1126/science.2194290. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nelson J. A., Ghazal P., Wiley C. A. Role of opportunistic viral infections in AIDS. AIDS. 1990 Jan;4(1):1–10. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199001000-00001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nelson J. A., Reynolds-Kohler C., Oldstone M. B., Wiley C. A. HIV and HCMV coinfect brain cells in patients with AIDS. Virology. 1988 Jul;165(1):286–290. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(88)90685-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Newstein M., Stanbridge E. J., Casey G., Shank P. R. Human chromosome 12 encodes a species-specific factor which increases human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat-mediated trans activation in rodent cells. J Virol. 1990 Sep;64(9):4565–4567. doi: 10.1128/jvi.64.9.4565-4567.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Olsen H. S., Cochrane A. W., Dillon P. J., Nalin C. M., Rosen C. A. Interaction of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev protein with a structured region in env mRNA is dependent on multimer formation mediated through a basic stretch of amino acids. Genes Dev. 1990 Aug;4(8):1357–1364. doi: 10.1101/gad.4.8.1357. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Olsen H. S., Nelbock P., Cochrane A. W., Rosen C. A. Secondary structure is the major determinant for interaction of HIV rev protein with RNA. Science. 1990 Feb 16;247(4944):845–848. doi: 10.1126/science.2406903. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pearson L., Garcia J., Wu F., Modesti N., Nelson J., Gaynor R. A transdominant tat mutant that inhibits tat-induced gene expression from the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Jul;87(13):5079–5083. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.13.5079. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Peterlin B. M., Luciw P. A., Barr P. J., Walker M. D. Elevated levels of mRNA can account for the trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Dec;83(24):9734–9738. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.24.9734. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rappaport J., Lee S. J., Khalili K., Wong-Staal F. The acidic amino-terminal region of the HIV-1 Tat protein constitutes an essential activating domain. New Biol. 1989 Oct;1(1):101–110. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rice A. P., Mathews M. B. Transcriptional but not translational regulation of HIV-1 by the tat gene product. Nature. 1988 Apr 7;332(6164):551–553. doi: 10.1038/332551a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rosen C. A., Sodroski J. G., Goh W. C., Dayton A. I., Lippke J., Haseltine W. A. Post-transcriptional regulation accounts for the trans-activation of the human T-lymphotropic virus type III. Nature. 1986 Feb 13;319(6054):555–559. doi: 10.1038/319555a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rosen C. A., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A. The location of cis-acting regulatory sequences in the human T cell lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III/LAV) long terminal repeat. Cell. 1985 Jul;41(3):813–823. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(85)80062-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rosen C. A., Terwilliger E., Dayton A., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A. Intragenic cis-acting art gene-responsive sequences of the human immunodeficiency virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Apr;85(7):2071–2075. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.7.2071. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Roy S., Delling U., Chen C. H., Rosen C. A., Sonenberg N. A bulge structure in HIV-1 TAR RNA is required for Tat binding and Tat-mediated trans-activation. Genes Dev. 1990 Aug;4(8):1365–1373. doi: 10.1101/gad.4.8.1365. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Roy S., Parkin N. T., Rosen C., Itovitch J., Sonenberg N. Structural requirements for trans activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat-directed gene expression by tat: importance of base pairing, loop sequence, and bulges in the tat-responsive sequence. J Virol. 1990 Mar;64(3):1402–1406. doi: 10.1128/jvi.64.3.1402-1406.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ruben S., Perkins A., Purcell R., Joung K., Sia R., Burghoff R., Haseltine W. A., Rosen C. A. Structural and functional characterization of human immunodeficiency virus tat protein. J Virol. 1989 Jan;63(1):1–8. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.1.1-8.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sadaie M. R., Benter T., Wong-Staal F. Site-directed mutagenesis of two trans-regulatory genes (tat-III,trs) of HIV-1. Science. 1988 Feb 19;239(4842):910–913. doi: 10.1126/science.3277284. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sadaie M. R., Rappaport J., Benter T., Josephs S. F., Willis R., Wong-Staal F. Missense mutations in an infectious human immunodeficiency viral genome: functional mapping of tat and identification of the rev splice acceptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Dec;85(23):9224–9228. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.23.9224. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sadaie M. R., Tschachler E., Valerie K., Rosenberg M., Felber B. K., Pavlakis G. N., Klotman M. E., Wong-Staal F. Activation of tat-defective human immunodeficiency virus by ultraviolet light. New Biol. 1990 May;2(5):479–486. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Salahuddin S. Z., Nakamura S., Biberfeld P., Kaplan M. H., Markham P. D., Larsson L., Gallo R. C. Angiogenic properties of Kaposi's sarcoma-derived cells after long-term culture in vitro. Science. 1988 Oct 21;242(4877):430–433. doi: 10.1126/science.2459779. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Salfeld J., Göttlinger H. G., Sia R. A., Park R. E., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A. A tripartite HIV-1 tat-env-rev fusion protein. EMBO J. 1990 Mar;9(3):965–970. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1990.tb08195.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schrier R. D., Nelson J. A., Oldstone M. B. Detection of human cytomegalovirus in peripheral blood lymphocytes in a natural infection. Science. 1985 Nov 29;230(4729):1048–1051. doi: 10.1126/science.2997930. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Seigel L. J., Ratner L., Josephs S. F., Derse D., Feinberg M. B., Reyes G. R., O'Brien S. J., Wong-Staal F. Transactivation induced by human T-lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV III) maps to a viral sequence encoding 58 amino acids and lacks tissue specificity. Virology. 1986 Jan 15;148(1):226–231. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(86)90419-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Selby M. J., Bain E. S., Luciw P. A., Peterlin B. M. Structure, sequence, and position of the stem-loop in tar determine transcriptional elongation by tat through the HIV-1 long terminal repeat. Genes Dev. 1989 Apr;3(4):547–558. doi: 10.1101/gad.3.4.547. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Selby M. J., Peterlin B. M. Trans-activation by HIV-1 Tat via a heterologous RNA binding protein. Cell. 1990 Aug 24;62(4):769–776. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90121-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sharp P. A., Marciniak R. A. HIV TAR: an RNA enhancer? Cell. 1989 Oct 20;59(2):229–230. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90279-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Shaw J. P., Utz P. J., Durand D. B., Toole J. J., Emmel E. A., Crabtree G. R. Identification of a putative regulator of early T cell activation genes. Science. 1988 Jul 8;241(4862):202–205. doi: 10.1126/science.3260404. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Siekevitz M., Josephs S. F., Dukovich M., Peffer N., Wong-Staal F., Greene W. C. Activation of the HIV-1 LTR by T cell mitogens and the trans-activator protein of HTLV-I. Science. 1987 Dec 11;238(4833):1575–1578. doi: 10.1126/science.2825351. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sodroski J., Goh W. C., Rosen C., Dayton A., Terwilliger E., Haseltine W. A second post-transcriptional trans-activator gene required for HTLV-III replication. Nature. 1986 May 22;321(6068):412–417. doi: 10.1038/321412a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sodroski J., Patarca R., Rosen C., Wong-Staal F., Haseltine W. Location of the trans-activating region on the genome of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type III. Science. 1985 Jul 5;229(4708):74–77. doi: 10.1126/science.2990041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sodroski J., Rosen C., Wong-Staal F., Salahuddin S. Z., Popovic M., Arya S., Gallo R. C., Haseltine W. A. Trans-acting transcriptional regulation of human T-cell leukemia virus type III long terminal repeat. Science. 1985 Jan 11;227(4683):171–173. doi: 10.1126/science.2981427. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Southgate C., Zapp M. L., Green M. R. Activation of transcription by HIV-1 Tat protein tethered to nascent RNA through another protein. Nature. 1990 Jun 14;345(6276):640–642. doi: 10.1038/345640a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stein B. S., Gowda S. D., Lifson J. D., Penhallow R. C., Bensch K. G., Engleman E. G. pH-independent HIV entry into CD4-positive T cells via virus envelope fusion to the plasma membrane. Cell. 1987 Jun 5;49(5):659–668. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90542-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Strebel K., Daugherty D., Clouse K., Cohen D., Folks T., Martin M. A. The HIV 'A' (sor) gene product is essential for virus infectivity. Nature. 1987 Aug 20;328(6132):728–730. doi: 10.1038/328728a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Strebel K., Klimkait T., Maldarelli F., Martin M. A. Molecular and biochemical analyses of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 vpu protein. J Virol. 1989 Sep;63(9):3784–3791. doi: 10.1128/jvi.63.9.3784-3791.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tada H., Rappaport J., Lashgari M., Amini S., Wong-Staal F., Khalili K. Trans-activation of the JC virus late promoter by the tat protein of type 1 human immunodeficiency virus in glial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 May;87(9):3479–3483. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.9.3479. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Terwilliger E. F., Cohen E. A., Lu Y. C., Sodroski J. G., Haseltine W. A. Functional role of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 vpu. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Jul;86(13):5163–5167. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.13.5163. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Venkatesh L. K., Mohammed S., Chinnadurai G. Functional domains of the HIV-1 rev gene required for trans-regulation and subcellular localization. Virology. 1990 May;176(1):39–47. doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(90)90228-j. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Viscidi R. P., Mayur K., Lederman H. M., Frankel A. D. Inhibition of antigen-induced lymphocyte proliferation by Tat protein from HIV-1. Science. 1989 Dec 22;246(4937):1606–1608. doi: 10.1126/science.2556795. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Vogel J., Hinrichs S. H., Reynolds R. K., Luciw P. A., Jay G. The HIV tat gene induces dermal lesions resembling Kaposi's sarcoma in transgenic mice. Nature. 1988 Oct 13;335(6191):606–611. doi: 10.1038/335606a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wilson W., Braddock M., Adams S. E., Rathjen P. D., Kingsman S. M., Kingsman A. J. HIV expression strategies: ribosomal frameshifting is directed by a short sequence in both mammalian and yeast systems. Cell. 1988 Dec 23;55(6):1159–1169. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90260-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wright C. M., Felber B. K., Paskalis H., Pavlakis G. N. Expression and characterization of the trans-activator of HTLV-III/LAV virus. Science. 1986 Nov 21;234(4779):988–992. doi: 10.1126/science.3490693. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wu F. K., Garcia J. A., Harrich D., Gaynor R. B. Purification of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 enhancer and TAR binding proteins EBP-1 and UBP-1. EMBO J. 1988 Jul;7(7):2117–2130. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb03051.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zack J. A., Arrigo S. J., Weitsman S. R., Go A. S., Haislip A., Chen I. S. HIV-1 entry into quiescent primary lymphocytes: molecular analysis reveals a labile, latent viral structure. Cell. 1990 Apr 20;61(2):213–222. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90802-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zapp M. L., Green M. R. Sequence-specific RNA binding by the HIV-1 Rev protein. Nature. 1989 Dec 7;342(6250):714–716. doi: 10.1038/342714a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]