Skip to main content
PMC home page
Microbiological Reviews logoLink to Microbiological Reviews
. 1992 Dec;56(4):543–560. doi: 10.1128/mr.56.4.543-560.1992

Silencers, silencing, and heritable transcriptional states.

P Laurenson 1, J Rine 1
PMCID: PMC372887  PMID: 1480108

Abstract

Three copies of the mating-type genes, which determine cell type, are found in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The copy at the MAT locus is transcriptionally active, whereas identical copies of the mating-type genes at the HML and HMR loci are transcriptionally silent. Hence, HML and HMR, also known as the silent mating-type loci, are subject to a position effect. Regulatory sequences flank the silent mating-type loci and mediate repression of HML and HMR. These regulatory sequences are called silencers for their ability to repress the transcription of nearby genes in a distance- and orientation-independent fashion. In addition, a number of proteins, including the four SIR proteins, histone H4, and an alpha-acetyltransferase, are required for the complete repression of HML and HMR. Because alterations in the amino-terminal domain of histone H4 result in the derepression of the silent mating-type loci, the mechanism of repression may involve the assembly of a specific chromatin structure. A number of additional clues permit insight into the nature of repression at HML and HMR. First, an S phase event is required for the establishment of repression. Second, at least one gene appears to play a role in the establishment mechanism yet is not essential for the stable propagation of repression through many rounds of cell division. Third, certain aspects of repression are linked to aspects of replication. The silent mating-type loci share many similarities with heterochromatin. Furthermore, regions of S. cerevisiae chromosomes, such as telomeres, which are known to be heterochromatic in other organisms, require a subset of SIR proteins for repression. Further analysis of the transcriptional repression at the silent mating-type loci may lend insight into heritable repression in other eukaryotes.

Full text

PDF

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Abraham J., Nasmyth K. A., Strathern J. N., Klar A. J., Hicks J. B. Regulation of mating-type information in yeast. Negative control requiring sequences both 5' and 3' to the regulated region. J Mol Biol. 1984 Jul 5;176(3):307–331. doi: 10.1016/0022-2836(84)90492-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Alberts B., Sternglanz R. Gene expression. Chromatin contract to silence. Nature. 1990 Mar 15;344(6263):193–194. doi: 10.1038/344193a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Andrews B. J., Herskowitz I. Regulation of cell cycle-dependent gene expression in yeast. J Biol Chem. 1990 Aug 25;265(24):14057–14060. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Aparicio O. M., Billington B. L., Gottschling D. E. Modifiers of position effect are shared between telomeric and silent mating-type loci in S. cerevisiae. Cell. 1991 Sep 20;66(6):1279–1287. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90049-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Astell C. R., Ahlstrom-Jonasson L., Smith M., Tatchell K., Nasmyth K. A., Hall B. D. The sequence of the DNAs coding for the mating-type loci of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cell. 1981 Nov;27(1 Pt 2):15–23. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(81)90356-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Axelrod A., Rine J. A role for CDC7 in repression of transcription at the silent mating-type locus HMR in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Feb;11(2):1080–1091. doi: 10.1128/mcb.11.2.1080. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bartolomei M. S., Zemel S., Tilghman S. M. Parental imprinting of the mouse H19 gene. Nature. 1991 May 9;351(6322):153–155. doi: 10.1038/351153a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Biswas S. B., Biswas E. E. ARS binding factor I of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae binds to sequences in telomeric and nontelomeric autonomously replicating sequences. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 Feb;10(2):810–815. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.2.810. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Borsani G., Tonlorenzi R., Simmler M. C., Dandolo L., Arnaud D., Capra V., Grompe M., Pizzuti A., Muzny D., Lawrence C. Characterization of a murine gene expressed from the inactive X chromosome. Nature. 1991 May 23;351(6324):325–329. doi: 10.1038/351325a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Brand A. H., Breeden L., Abraham J., Sternglanz R., Nasmyth K. Characterization of a "silencer" in yeast: a DNA sequence with properties opposite to those of a transcriptional enhancer. Cell. 1985 May;41(1):41–48. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(85)90059-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Brand A. H., Micklem G., Nasmyth K. A yeast silencer contains sequences that can promote autonomous plasmid replication and transcriptional activation. Cell. 1987 Dec 4;51(5):709–719. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90094-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Brewer B. J., Fangman W. L. The localization of replication origins on ARS plasmids in S. cerevisiae. Cell. 1987 Nov 6;51(3):463–471. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90642-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Brindle P. K., Holland J. P., Willett C. E., Innis M. A., Holland M. J. Multiple factors bind the upstream activation sites of the yeast enolase genes ENO1 and ENO2: ABFI protein, like repressor activator protein RAP1, binds cis-acting sequences which modulate repression or activation of transcription. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 Sep;10(9):4872–4885. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.9.4872. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Brockdorff N., Ashworth A., Kay G. F., Cooper P., Smith S., McCabe V. M., Norris D. P., Penny G. D., Patel D., Rastan S. Conservation of position and exclusive expression of mouse Xist from the inactive X chromosome. Nature. 1991 May 23;351(6324):329–331. doi: 10.1038/351329a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Brown C. J., Ballabio A., Rupert J. L., Lafreniere R. G., Grompe M., Tonlorenzi R., Willard H. F. A gene from the region of the human X inactivation centre is expressed exclusively from the inactive X chromosome. Nature. 1991 Jan 3;349(6304):38–44. doi: 10.1038/349038a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Brown C. J., Lafreniere R. G., Powers V. E., Sebastio G., Ballabio A., Pettigrew A. L., Ledbetter D. H., Levy E., Craig I. W., Willard H. F. Localization of the X inactivation centre on the human X chromosome in Xq13. Nature. 1991 Jan 3;349(6304):82–84. doi: 10.1038/349082a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Buchman A. R., Kimmerly W. J., Rine J., Kornberg R. D. Two DNA-binding factors recognize specific sequences at silencers, upstream activating sequences, autonomously replicating sequences, and telomeres in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Jan;8(1):210–225. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.1.210. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Buchman A. R., Kornberg R. D. A yeast ARS-binding protein activates transcription synergistically in combination with other weak activating factors. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 Mar;10(3):887–897. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.3.887. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Buchman A. R., Lue N. F., Kornberg R. D. Connections between transcriptional activators, silencers, and telomeres as revealed by functional analysis of a yeast DNA-binding protein. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Dec;8(12):5086–5099. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.12.5086. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Chaillet J. R., Vogt T. F., Beier D. R., Leder P. Parental-specific methylation of an imprinted transgene is established during gametogenesis and progressively changes during embryogenesis. Cell. 1991 Jul 12;66(1):77–83. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90140-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Chambers A., Stanway C., Tsang J. S., Henry Y., Kingsman A. J., Kingsman S. M. ARS binding factor 1 binds adjacent to RAP1 at the UASs of the yeast glycolytic genes PGK and PYK1. Nucleic Acids Res. 1990 Sep 25;18(18):5393–5399. doi: 10.1093/nar/18.18.5393. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Chambers A., Tsang J. S., Stanway C., Kingsman A. J., Kingsman S. M. Transcriptional control of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae PGK gene by RAP1. Mol Cell Biol. 1989 Dec;9(12):5516–5524. doi: 10.1128/mcb.9.12.5516. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Chan C. S., Tye B. K. A family of Saccharomyces cerevisiae repetitive autonomously replicating sequences that have very similar genomic environments. J Mol Biol. 1983 Aug 15;168(3):505–523. doi: 10.1016/s0022-2836(83)80299-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Chan C. S., Tye B. K. Organization of DNA sequences and replication origins at yeast telomeres. Cell. 1983 Jun;33(2):563–573. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(83)90437-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Chen T. A., Smith M. M., Le S. Y., Sternglanz R., Allfrey V. G. Nucleosome fractionation by mercury affinity chromatography. Contrasting distribution of transcriptionally active DNA sequences and acetylated histones in nucleosome fractions of wild-type yeast cells and cells expressing a histone H3 gene altered to encode a cysteine 110 residue. J Biol Chem. 1991 Apr 5;266(10):6489–6498. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Chien C. T., Bartel P. L., Sternglanz R., Fields S. The two-hybrid system: a method to identify and clone genes for proteins that interact with a protein of interest. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Nov 1;88(21):9578–9582. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.21.9578. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Clark-Adams C. D., Norris D., Osley M. A., Fassler J. S., Winston F. Changes in histone gene dosage alter transcription in yeast. Genes Dev. 1988 Feb;2(2):150–159. doi: 10.1101/gad.2.2.150. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Davies K. Human genetics. The essence of inactivity. Nature. 1991 Jan 3;349(6304):15–16. doi: 10.1038/349015a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Della Seta F., Ciafré S. A., Marck C., Santoro B., Presutti C., Sentenac A., Bozzoni I. The ABF1 factor is the transcriptional activator of the L2 ribosomal protein genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 May;10(5):2437–2441. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.5.2437. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Della Seta F., Treich I., Buhler J. M., Sentenac A. ABF1 binding sites in yeast RNA polymerase genes. J Biol Chem. 1990 Sep 5;265(25):15168–15175. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Diffley J. F., Stillman B. Purification of a yeast protein that binds to origins of DNA replication and a transcriptional silencer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Apr;85(7):2120–2124. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.7.2120. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Diffley J. F., Stillman B. Similarity between the transcriptional silencer binding proteins ABF1 and RAP1. Science. 1989 Nov 24;246(4933):1034–1038. doi: 10.1126/science.2511628. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Diffley J. F., Stillman B. Transcriptional silencing and lamins. Nature. 1989 Nov 2;342(6245):24–24. doi: 10.1038/342024a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Dingwall C., Laskey R. A. Nuclear targeting sequences--a consensus? Trends Biochem Sci. 1991 Dec;16(12):478–481. doi: 10.1016/0968-0004(91)90184-w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Dubey D. D., Davis L. R., Greenfeder S. A., Ong L. Y., Zhu J. G., Broach J. R., Newlon C. S., Huberman J. A. Evidence suggesting that the ARS elements associated with silencers of the yeast mating-type locus HML do not function as chromosomal DNA replication origins. Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Oct;11(10):5346–5355. doi: 10.1128/mcb.11.10.5346. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Eisenberg S., Civalier C., Tye B. K. Specific interaction between a Saccharomyces cerevisiae protein and a DNA element associated with certain autonomously replicating sequences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Feb;85(3):743–746. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.3.743. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Eissenberg J. C., James T. C., Foster-Hartnett D. M., Hartnett T., Ngan V., Elgin S. C. Mutation in a heterochromatin-specific chromosomal protein is associated with suppression of position-effect variegation in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Dec;87(24):9923–9927. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.24.9923. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Eissenberg J. C. Position effect variegation in Drosophila: towards a genetics of chromatin assembly. Bioessays. 1989 Jul;11(1):14–17. doi: 10.1002/bies.950110105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Fangman W. L., Brewer B. J. Activation of replication origins within yeast chromosomes. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1991;7:375–402. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.07.110191.002111. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Fehér Z., Schlagman S. L., Miner Z., Hattman S. In vivo methylation of yeast DNA by prokaryotic DNA methyltransferases. Gene. 1988 Dec 25;74(1):193–195. doi: 10.1016/0378-1119(88)90285-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Feldman J. B., Hicks J. B., Broach J. R. Identification of sites required for repression of a silent mating type locus in yeast. J Mol Biol. 1984 Oct 5;178(4):815–834. doi: 10.1016/0022-2836(84)90313-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Ferguson B. M., Brewer B. J., Reynolds A. E., Fangman W. L. A yeast origin of replication is activated late in S phase. Cell. 1991 May 3;65(3):507–515. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90468-e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Ferguson B. M., Fangman W. L. A position effect on the time of replication origin activation in yeast. Cell. 1992 Jan 24;68(2):333–339. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90474-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Gabor M. H., Hotchkiss R. D. Reciprocal and nonreciprocal recombination in diploid clones from Bacillus subtilis protoplast fusion: Association with the replication origin and terminus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983 Mar;80(5):1426–1430. doi: 10.1073/pnas.80.5.1426. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Gartler S. M., Riggs A. D. Mammalian X-chromosome inactivation. Annu Rev Genet. 1983;17:155–190. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.17.120183.001103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Gerlach W. L. Sporulation in mating type homozygotes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Heredity (Edinb) 1974 Apr;32(2):241–249. doi: 10.1038/hdy.1974.28. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Giesman D., Best L., Tatchell K. The role of RAP1 in the regulation of the MAT alpha locus. Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Feb;11(2):1069–1079. doi: 10.1128/mcb.11.2.1069. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Goetsch L., Byers B. Meiotic cytology of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in protoplast lysates. Mol Gen Genet. 1982;187(1):54–60. doi: 10.1007/BF00384383. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Gottlieb S., Esposito R. E. A new role for a yeast transcriptional silencer gene, SIR2, in regulation of recombination in ribosomal DNA. Cell. 1989 Mar 10;56(5):771–776. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90681-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Gottschling D. E., Aparicio O. M., Billington B. L., Zakian V. A. Position effect at S. cerevisiae telomeres: reversible repression of Pol II transcription. Cell. 1990 Nov 16;63(4):751–762. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90141-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Gottschling D. E. Telomere-proximal DNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is refractory to methyltransferase activity in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 May 1;89(9):4062–4065. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.9.4062. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Grant S. G., Chapman V. M. Mechanisms of X-chromosome regulation. Annu Rev Genet. 1988;22:199–233. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.22.120188.001215. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Gross D. S., Adams C. C., English K. E., Collins K. W., Lee S. Promoter function and in situ protein/DNA interactions upstream of the yeast HSP90 heat shock genes. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 1990 Oct;58(3):175–186. doi: 10.1007/BF00548930. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Guillén N., Amar M., Hirschbein L. Stabilized non-complementing diploids (Ncd) from fused protoplast products of B. subtilis. EMBO J. 1985 May;4(5):1333–1338. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1985.tb03781.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. HAWTHORNE D. C. A DELETION IN YEAST AND ITS BEARING ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE MATING TYPE LOCUS. Genetics. 1963 Dec;48:1727–1729. doi: 10.1093/genetics/48.12.1727. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Haaf T., Schmid M. Chromosome topology in mammalian interphase nuclei. Exp Cell Res. 1991 Feb;192(2):325–332. doi: 10.1016/0014-4827(91)90048-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Haber J. E., George J. P. A mutation that permits the expression of normally silent copies of mating-type information in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1979 Sep;93(1):13–35. doi: 10.1093/genetics/93.1.13. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Halfter H., Kavety B., Vandekerckhove J., Kiefer F., Gallwitz D. Sequence, expression and mutational analysis of BAF1, a transcriptional activator and ARS1-binding protein of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. EMBO J. 1989 Dec 20;8(13):4265–4272. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1989.tb08612.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Halfter H., Müller U., Winnacker E. L., Gallwitz D. Isolation and DNA-binding characteristics of a protein involved in transcription activation of two divergently transcribed, essential yeast genes. EMBO J. 1989 Oct;8(10):3029–3037. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1989.tb08453.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Hamil K. G., Nam H. G., Fried H. M. Constitutive transcription of yeast ribosomal protein gene TCM1 is promoted by uncommon cis- and trans-acting elements. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Oct;8(10):4328–4341. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.10.4328. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Hardy C. F., Sussel L., Shore D. A RAP1-interacting protein involved in transcriptional silencing and telomere length regulation. Genes Dev. 1992 May;6(5):801–814. doi: 10.1101/gad.6.5.801. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Hartwell L. H. Mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae unresponsive to cell division control by polypeptide mating hormone. J Cell Biol. 1980 Jun;85(3):811–822. doi: 10.1083/jcb.85.3.811. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Hartwell L. H. Three additional genes required for deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Bacteriol. 1973 Sep;115(3):966–974. doi: 10.1128/jb.115.3.966-974.1973. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Hazelrigg T., Levis R., Rubin G. M. Transformation of white locus DNA in drosophila: dosage compensation, zeste interaction, and position effects. Cell. 1984 Feb;36(2):469–481. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(84)90240-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Henikoff S. Position-effect variegation after 60 years. Trends Genet. 1990 Dec;6(12):422–426. doi: 10.1016/0168-9525(90)90304-o. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Herskowitz I. A regulatory hierarchy for cell specialization in yeast. Nature. 1989 Dec 14;342(6251):749–757. doi: 10.1038/342749a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Herskowitz I., Jensen R. E. Putting the HO gene to work: practical uses for mating-type switching. Methods Enzymol. 1991;194:132–146. doi: 10.1016/0076-6879(91)94011-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Herskowitz I. Life cycle of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbiol Rev. 1988 Dec;52(4):536–553. doi: 10.1128/mr.52.4.536-553.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Herskowitz I. The Hawthorne deletion twenty-five years later. Genetics. 1988 Dec;120(4):857–861. doi: 10.1093/genetics/120.4.857. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Hicks J. B., Herskowitz I. Interconversion of Yeast Mating Types II. Restoration of Mating Ability to Sterile Mutants in Homothallic and Heterothallic Strains. Genetics. 1977 Mar;85(3):373–393. doi: 10.1093/genetics/85.3.373b. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Hicks J., Strathern J. N., Klar A. J. Transposable mating type genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nature. 1979 Nov 29;282(5738):478–473. doi: 10.1038/282478a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Hoekstra M. F., Malone R. E. Expression of the Escherichia coli dam methylase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: effect of in vivo adenine methylation on genetic recombination and mutation. Mol Cell Biol. 1985 Apr;5(4):610–618. doi: 10.1128/mcb.5.4.610. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Hofmann J. F., Gasser S. M. Identification and purification of a protein that binds the yeast ARS consensus sequence. Cell. 1991 Mar 8;64(5):951–960. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90319-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Hofmann J. F., Laroche T., Brand A. H., Gasser S. M. RAP-1 factor is necessary for DNA loop formation in vitro at the silent mating type locus HML. Cell. 1989 Jun 2;57(5):725–737. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90788-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Hollingsworth R. E., Jr, Sclafani R. A. DNA metabolism gene CDC7 from yeast encodes a serine (threonine) protein kinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Aug;87(16):6272–6276. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.16.6272. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Huet J., Cottrelle P., Cool M., Vignais M. L., Thiele D., Marck C., Buhler J. M., Sentenac A., Fromageot P. A general upstream binding factor for genes of the yeast translational apparatus. EMBO J. 1985 Dec 16;4(13A):3539–3547. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1985.tb04114.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Ivy J. M., Klar A. J., Hicks J. B. Cloning and characterization of four SIR genes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Feb;6(2):688–702. doi: 10.1128/mcb.6.2.688. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. James T. C., Elgin S. C. Identification of a nonhistone chromosomal protein associated with heterochromatin in Drosophila melanogaster and its gene. Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Nov;6(11):3862–3872. doi: 10.1128/mcb.6.11.3862. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Johnson L. M., Kayne P. S., Kahn E. S., Grunstein M. Genetic evidence for an interaction between SIR3 and histone H4 in the repression of the silent mating loci in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Aug;87(16):6286–6290. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.16.6286. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Kassir Y., Hicks J. B., Herskowitz I. SAD mutation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an extra a cassette. Mol Cell Biol. 1983 May;3(5):871–880. doi: 10.1128/mcb.3.5.871. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Kayne P. S., Kim U. J., Han M., Mullen J. R., Yoshizaki F., Grunstein M. Extremely conserved histone H4 N terminus is dispensable for growth but essential for repressing the silent mating loci in yeast. Cell. 1988 Oct 7;55(1):27–39. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90006-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Kimmerly W. J., Rine J. Replication and segregation of plasmids containing cis-acting regulatory sites of silent mating-type genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae are controlled by the SIR genes. Mol Cell Biol. 1987 Dec;7(12):4225–4237. doi: 10.1128/mcb.7.12.4225. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Kimmerly W., Buchman A., Kornberg R., Rine J. Roles of two DNA-binding factors in replication, segregation and transcriptional repression mediated by a yeast silencer. EMBO J. 1988 Jul;7(7):2241–2253. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb03064.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Klar A. J., Fogel S., Macleod K. MAR1-a Regulator of the HMa and HMalpha Loci in SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE. Genetics. 1979 Sep;93(1):37–50. doi: 10.1093/genetics/93.1.37. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Klar A. J., Fogel S., Radin D. N. Switching of a mating-type a mutant allele in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1979 Jul;92(3):759–776. doi: 10.1093/genetics/92.3.759. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Klar A. J., Kakar S. N., Ivy J. M., Hicks J. B., Livi G. P., Miglio L. M. SUM1, an apparent positive regulator of the cryptic mating-type loci in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1985 Dec;111(4):745–758. doi: 10.1093/genetics/111.4.745. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Klar A. J., Strathern J. N., Abraham J. A. Involvement of double-strand chromosomal breaks for mating-type switching in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 1984;49:77–88. doi: 10.1101/sqb.1984.049.01.011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Klar A. J., Strathern J. N., Broach J. R., Hicks J. B. Regulation of transcription in expressed and unexpressed mating type cassettes of yeast. Nature. 1981 Jan 22;289(5795):239–244. doi: 10.1038/289239a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Kurtz S., Shore D. RAP1 protein activates and silences transcription of mating-type genes in yeast. Genes Dev. 1991 Apr;5(4):616–628. doi: 10.1101/gad.5.4.616. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Kushner P. J., Blair L. C., Herskowitz I. Control of yeast cell types by mobile genes: a test. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Oct;76(10):5264–5268. doi: 10.1073/pnas.76.10.5264. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Laurenson P., Rine J. SUM1-1: a suppressor of silencing defects in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1991 Nov;129(3):685–696. doi: 10.1093/genetics/129.3.685. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Lee F. J., Lin L. W., Smith J. A. Molecular cloning and sequencing of a cDNA encoding N alpha-acetyltransferase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem. 1989 Jul 25;264(21):12339–12343. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Lee F. J., Lin L. W., Smith J. A. N alpha acetylation is required for normal growth and mating of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Bacteriol. 1989 Nov;171(11):5795–5802. doi: 10.1128/jb.171.11.5795-5802.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Lee F. J., Lin L. W., Smith J. A. Purification and characterization of an N alpha-acetyltransferase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem. 1988 Oct 15;263(29):14948–14955. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Lin C. I., Livi G. P., Ivy J. M., Klar A. J. Extragenic suppressors of mar2(sir3) mutations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1990 Jun;125(2):321–331. doi: 10.1093/genetics/125.2.321. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Little M., Van Heyningen V., Hastie N. Dads and disomy and disease. Nature. 1991 Jun 20;351(6328):609–610. doi: 10.1038/351609a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Livi G. P., Hicks J. B., Klar A. J. The sum1-1 mutation affects silent mating-type gene transcription in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 Jan;10(1):409–412. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.1.409. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Locke J., Kotarski M. A., Tartof K. D. Dosage-dependent modifiers of position effect variegation in Drosophila and a mass action model that explains their effect. Genetics. 1988 Sep;120(1):181–198. doi: 10.1093/genetics/120.1.181. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Longtine M. S., Wilson N. M., Petracek M. E., Berman J. A yeast telomere binding activity binds to two related telomere sequence motifs and is indistinguishable from RAP1. Curr Genet. 1989 Oct;16(4):225–239. doi: 10.1007/BF00422108. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Lue N. F., Buchman A. R., Kornberg R. D. Activation of yeast RNA polymerase II transcription by a thymidine-rich upstream element in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Jan;86(2):486–490. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.2.486. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Lustig A. J., Kurtz S., Shore D. Involvement of the silencer and UAS binding protein RAP1 in regulation of telomere length. Science. 1990 Oct 26;250(4980):549–553. doi: 10.1126/science.2237406. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Lyon M. F. The quest for the X-inactivation centre. Trends Genet. 1991 Mar;7(3):69–70. doi: 10.1016/0168-9525(91)90271-Q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Mahoney D. J., Broach J. R. The HML mating-type cassette of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is regulated by two separate but functionally equivalent silencers. Mol Cell Biol. 1989 Nov;9(11):4621–4630. doi: 10.1128/mcb.9.11.4621. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Mahoney D. J., Marquardt R., Shei G. J., Rose A. B., Broach J. R. Mutations in the HML E silencer of Saccharomyces cerevisiae yield metastable inheritance of transcriptional repression. Genes Dev. 1991 Apr;5(4):605–615. doi: 10.1101/gad.5.4.605. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Marsh L., Neiman A. M., Herskowitz I. Signal transduction during pheromone response in yeast. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1991;7:699–728. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.07.110191.003411. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Marshall M., Mahoney D., Rose A., Hicks J. B., Broach J. R. Functional domains of SIR4, a gene required for position effect regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1987 Dec;7(12):4441–4452. doi: 10.1128/mcb.7.12.4441. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. McCarroll R. M., Fangman W. L. Time of replication of yeast centromeres and telomeres. Cell. 1988 Aug 12;54(4):505–513. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90072-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. McNally F. J., Rine J. A synthetic silencer mediates SIR-dependent functions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Nov;11(11):5648–5659. doi: 10.1128/mcb.11.11.5648. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Megee P. C., Morgan B. A., Mittman B. A., Smith M. M. Genetic analysis of histone H4: essential role of lysines subject to reversible acetylation. Science. 1990 Feb 16;247(4944):841–845. doi: 10.1126/science.2106160. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Mermod N., O'Neill E. A., Kelly T. J., Tjian R. The proline-rich transcriptional activator of CTF/NF-I is distinct from the replication and DNA binding domain. Cell. 1989 Aug 25;58(4):741–753. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90108-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Miller A. M., Nasmyth K. A. Role of DNA replication in the repression of silent mating type loci in yeast. Nature. 1984 Nov 15;312(5991):247–251. doi: 10.1038/312247a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Monk M. Genomic imprinting. Genes Dev. 1988 Aug;2(8):921–925. doi: 10.1101/gad.2.8.921. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Moore G. D., Procunier J. D., Cross D. P., Grigliatti T. A. Histone gene deficiencies and position--effect variegation in Drosophila. Nature. 1979 Nov 15;282(5736):312–314. doi: 10.1038/282312a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Moore G. D., Sinclair D. A., Grigliatti T. A. Histone Gene Multiplicity and Position Effect Variegation in DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER. Genetics. 1983 Oct;105(2):327–344. doi: 10.1093/genetics/105.2.327. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Mortimer R. K., Schild D., Contopoulou C. R., Kans J. A. Genetic map of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, edition 10. Yeast. 1989 Sep-Oct;5(5):321–403. doi: 10.1002/yea.320050503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Mottus R., Reeves R., Grigliatti T. A. Butyrate suppression of position-effect variegation in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Gen Genet. 1980;178(2):465–469. doi: 10.1007/BF00270501. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Mullen J. R., Kayne P. S., Moerschell R. P., Tsunasawa S., Gribskov M., Colavito-Shepanski M., Grunstein M., Sherman F., Sternglanz R. Identification and characterization of genes and mutants for an N-terminal acetyltransferase from yeast. EMBO J. 1989 Jul;8(7):2067–2075. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1989.tb03615.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Murray A. W., Szostak J. W. Pedigree analysis of plasmid segregation in yeast. Cell. 1983 Oct;34(3):961–970. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(83)90553-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Nasmyth K. A. FAR-reaching discoveries about the regulation of START. Cell. 1990 Dec 21;63(6):1117–1120. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90404-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Nasmyth K. A., Tatchell K., Hall B. D., Astell C., Smith M. A position effect in the control of transcription at yeast mating type loci. Nature. 1981 Jan 22;289(5795):244–250. doi: 10.1038/289244a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Nasmyth K. A., Tatchell K. The structure of transposable yeast mating type loci. Cell. 1980 Mar;19(3):753–764. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(80)80051-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Nasmyth K. A. The regulation of yeast mating-type chromatin structure by SIR: an action at a distance affecting both transcription and transposition. Cell. 1982 Sep;30(2):567–578. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(82)90253-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Nasmyth K., Shore D. Transcriptional regulation in the yeast life cycle. Science. 1987 Sep 4;237(4819):1162–1170. doi: 10.1126/science.3306917. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Nawotka K. A., Huberman J. A. Two-dimensional gel electrophoretic method for mapping DNA replicons. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Apr;8(4):1408–1413. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.4.1408. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Newlon C. S. Yeast chromosome replication and segregation. Microbiol Rev. 1988 Dec;52(4):568–601. doi: 10.1128/mr.52.4.568-601.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Park E. C., Szostak J. W. Point mutations in the yeast histone H4 gene prevent silencing of the silent mating type locus HML. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 Sep;10(9):4932–4934. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.9.4932. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Patterson M., Sclafani R. A., Fangman W. L., Rosamond J. Molecular characterization of cell cycle gene CDC7 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1986 May;6(5):1590–1598. doi: 10.1128/mcb.6.5.1590. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Petes T. D., Botstein D. Simple Mendelian inheritance of the reiterated ribosomal DNA of yeast. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 Nov;74(11):5091–5095. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.11.5091. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Petes T. D. Unequal meiotic recombination within tandem arrays of yeast ribosomal DNA genes. Cell. 1980 Mar;19(3):765–774. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(80)80052-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Pillus L., Rine J. Epigenetic inheritance of transcriptional states in S. cerevisiae. Cell. 1989 Nov 17;59(4):637–647. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90009-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Proffitt J. H., Davie J. R., Swinton D., Hattman S. 5-Methylcytosine is not detectable in Saccharomyces cerevisiae DNA. Mol Cell Biol. 1984 May;4(5):985–988. doi: 10.1128/mcb.4.5.985. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Rastan S., Brown S. D. The search for the mouse X-chromosome inactivation centre. Genet Res. 1990 Oct-Dec;56(2-3):99–106. doi: 10.1017/s0016672300035163. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Reik W., Collick A., Norris M. L., Barton S. C., Surani M. A. Genomic imprinting determines methylation of parental alleles in transgenic mice. Nature. 1987 Jul 16;328(6127):248–251. doi: 10.1038/328248a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Reik W. Genomic imprinting and genetic disorders in man. Trends Genet. 1989 Oct;5(10):331–336. doi: 10.1016/0168-9525(89)90138-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Reuter G., Gausz J., Gyurkovics H., Friede B., Bang R., Spierer A., Hall L. M., Spierer P. Modifiers of position-effect variegation in the region from 86C to 88B of the Drosophila melanogaster third chromosome. Mol Gen Genet. 1987 Dec;210(3):429–436. doi: 10.1007/BF00327193. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Reuter G., Giarre M., Farah J., Gausz J., Spierer A., Spierer P. Dependence of position-effect variegation in Drosophila on dose of a gene encoding an unusual zinc-finger protein. Nature. 1990 Mar 15;344(6263):219–223. doi: 10.1038/344219a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Reynolds A. E., McCarroll R. M., Newlon C. S., Fangman W. L. Time of replication of ARS elements along yeast chromosome III. Mol Cell Biol. 1989 Oct;9(10):4488–4494. doi: 10.1128/mcb.9.10.4488. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Rhode P. R., Sweder K. S., Oegema K. F., Campbell J. L. The gene encoding ARS-binding factor I is essential for the viability of yeast. Genes Dev. 1989 Dec;3(12A):1926–1939. doi: 10.1101/gad.3.12a.1926. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Rine J., Herskowitz I. Four genes responsible for a position effect on expression from HML and HMR in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1987 May;116(1):9–22. doi: 10.1093/genetics/116.1.9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Rine J., Strathern J. N., Hicks J. B., Herskowitz I. A suppressor of mating-type locus mutations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: evidence for and identification of cryptic mating-type loci. Genetics. 1979 Dec;93(4):877–901. doi: 10.1093/genetics/93.4.877. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Rivier D. H., Rine J. An origin of DNA replication and a transcription silencer require a common element. Science. 1992 May 1;256(5057):659–663. doi: 10.1126/science.1585179. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Rivier D. H., Rine J. Silencing: the establishment and inheritance of stable, repressed transcription states. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 1992 Apr;2(2):286–292. doi: 10.1016/s0959-437x(05)80286-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Sapienza C., Peterson A. C., Rossant J., Balling R. Degree of methylation of transgenes is dependent on gamete of origin. Nature. 1987 Jul 16;328(6127):251–254. doi: 10.1038/328251a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Schaeffer P., Cami B., Hotchkiss R. D. Fusion of bacterial protoplasts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1976 Jun;73(6):2151–2155. doi: 10.1073/pnas.73.6.2151. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Schmidt A. M., Herterich S. U., Krauss G. A single-stranded DNA binding protein from S. cerevisiae specifically recognizes the T-rich strand of the core sequence of ARS elements and discriminates against mutant sequences. EMBO J. 1991 Apr;10(4):981–985. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1991.tb08032.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Schnell R., D'Ari L., Foss M., Goodman D., Rine J. Genetic and molecular characterization of suppressors of SIR4 mutations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1989 May;122(1):29–46. doi: 10.1093/genetics/122.1.29. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Schnell R., Rine J. A position effect on the expression of a tRNA gene mediated by the SIR genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Feb;6(2):494–501. doi: 10.1128/mcb.6.2.494. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. Shore D., Nasmyth K. Purification and cloning of a DNA binding protein from yeast that binds to both silencer and activator elements. Cell. 1987 Dec 4;51(5):721–732. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90095-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  149. Shore D., Squire M., Nasmyth K. A. Characterization of two genes required for the position-effect control of yeast mating-type genes. EMBO J. 1984 Dec 1;3(12):2817–2823. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1984.tb02214.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Shore D., Stillman D. J., Brand A. H., Nasmyth K. A. Identification of silencer binding proteins from yeast: possible roles in SIR control and DNA replication. EMBO J. 1987 Feb;6(2):461–467. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb04776.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. Sinclair D. A., Lloyd V. K., Grigliatti T. A. Characterization of mutations that enhance position-effect variegation in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Gen Genet. 1989 Apr;216(2-3):328–333. doi: 10.1007/BF00334372. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  152. Singh J., Klar A. J. Active genes in budding yeast display enhanced in vivo accessibility to foreign DNA methylases: a novel in vivo probe for chromatin structure of yeast. Genes Dev. 1992 Feb;6(2):186–196. doi: 10.1101/gad.6.2.186. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  153. Smith M. M. Histone structure and function. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1991 Jun;3(3):429–437. doi: 10.1016/0955-0674(91)90070-f. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Solter D. Differential imprinting and expression of maternal and paternal genomes. Annu Rev Genet. 1988;22:127–146. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.22.120188.001015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  155. Spradling A. C., Karpen G. H. Sixty years of mystery. Genetics. 1990 Dec;126(4):779–784. doi: 10.1093/genetics/126.4.779. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. Spradling A., Orr-Weaver T. Regulation of DNA replication during Drosophila development. Annu Rev Genet. 1987;21:373–403. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.21.120187.002105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  157. Sprague G. F., Jr Combinatorial associations of regulatory proteins and the control of cell type in yeast. Adv Genet. 1990;27:33–62. doi: 10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60023-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  158. Sprague G. F., Jr Signal transduction in yeast mating: receptors, transcription factors, and the kinase connection. Trends Genet. 1991 Nov-Dec;7(11-12):393–398. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  159. Stinchcomb D. T., Struhl K., Davis R. W. Isolation and characterisation of a yeast chromosomal replicator. Nature. 1979 Nov 1;282(5734):39–43. doi: 10.1038/282039a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  160. Stone E. M., Swanson M. J., Romeo A. M., Hicks J. B., Sternglanz R. The SIR1 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and its role as an extragenic suppressor of several mating-defective mutants. Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Apr;11(4):2253–2262. doi: 10.1128/mcb.11.4.2253. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  161. Strathern J. N., Klar A. J., Hicks J. B., Abraham J. A., Ivy J. M., Nasmyth K. A., McGill C. Homothallic switching of yeast mating type cassettes is initiated by a double-stranded cut in the MAT locus. Cell. 1982 Nov;31(1):183–192. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(82)90418-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  162. Strathern J. N., Newlon C. S., Herskowitz I., Hicks J. B. Isolation of a circular derivative of yeast chromosome III: implications for the mechanism of mating type interconversion. Cell. 1979 Oct;18(2):309–319. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(79)90050-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  163. Strathern J. N., Spatola E., McGill C., Hicks J. B. Structure and organization of transposable mating type cassettes in Saccharomyces yeasts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980 May;77(5):2839–2843. doi: 10.1073/pnas.77.5.2839. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  164. Sussel L., Shore D. Separation of transcriptional activation and silencing functions of the RAP1-encoded repressor/activator protein 1: isolation of viable mutants affecting both silencing and telomere length. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Sep 1;88(17):7749–7753. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.17.7749. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  165. Swain J. L., Stewart T. A., Leder P. Parental legacy determines methylation and expression of an autosomal transgene: a molecular mechanism for parental imprinting. Cell. 1987 Aug 28;50(5):719–727. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90330-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  166. Szostak J. W., Wu R. Insertion of a genetic marker into the ribosomal DNA of yeast. Plasmid. 1979 Oct;2(4):536–554. doi: 10.1016/0147-619x(79)90053-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  167. Tartof K. D., Bishop C., Jones M., Hobbs C. A., Locke J. Towards an understanding of position effect variegation. Dev Genet. 1989;10(3):162–176. doi: 10.1002/dvg.1020100306. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  168. Terleth C., van Sluis C. A., van de Putte P. Differential repair of UV damage in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nucleic Acids Res. 1989 Jun 26;17(12):4433–4439. doi: 10.1093/nar/17.12.4433. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  169. Traverse K. L., Pardue M. L. Studies of He-T DNA sequences in the pericentric regions of Drosophila chromosomes. Chromosoma. 1989 Jan;97(4):261–271. doi: 10.1007/BF00371965. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  170. Vignais M. L., Woudt L. P., Wassenaar G. M., Mager W. H., Sentenac A., Planta R. J. Specific binding of TUF factor to upstream activation sites of yeast ribosomal protein genes. EMBO J. 1987 May;6(5):1451–1457. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02386.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  171. Warner J. R. Synthesis of ribosomes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbiol Rev. 1989 Jun;53(2):256–271. doi: 10.1128/mr.53.2.256-271.1989. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  172. Westergaard M., von Wettstein D. The synaptinemal complex. Annu Rev Genet. 1972;6:71–110. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.06.120172.000443. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  173. Whiteway M., Freedman R., Van Arsdell S., Szostak J. W., Thorner J. The yeast ARD1 gene product is required for repression of cryptic mating-type information at the HML locus. Mol Cell Biol. 1987 Oct;7(10):3713–3722. doi: 10.1128/mcb.7.10.3713. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  174. Whiteway M., Szostak J. W. The ARD1 gene of yeast functions in the switch between the mitotic cell cycle and alternative developmental pathways. Cell. 1985 Dec;43(2 Pt 1):483–492. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(85)90178-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  175. Willison K. Opposite imprinting of the mouse Igf2 and Igf2r genes. Trends Genet. 1991 Apr;7(4):107–109. doi: 10.1016/0168-9525(91)90441-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  176. Wustmann G., Szidonya J., Taubert H., Reuter G. The genetics of position-effect variegation modifying loci in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Gen Genet. 1989 Jun;217(2-3):520–527. doi: 10.1007/BF02464926. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  177. Yoshikawa A., Isono K. Chromosome III of Saccharomyces cerevisiae: an ordered clone bank, a detailed restriction map and analysis of transcripts suggest the presence of 160 genes. Yeast. 1990 Sep-Oct;6(5):383–401. doi: 10.1002/yea.320060504. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  178. Zakian V. A. Structure and function of telomeres. Annu Rev Genet. 1989;23:579–604. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.23.120189.003051. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Microbiological Reviews are provided here courtesy of American Society for Microbiology (ASM)

RESOURCES