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African Journal of Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines logoLink to African Journal of Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines
. 2012 Dec 31;10(2):368–385. doi: 10.4314/ajtcam.v10i2.24

Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Kurd Tribe in Dehloran and Abdanan Districts, Ilam Province, Iran

A Ghasemi Pirbalouti *,, M Momeni *, M Bahmani **
PMCID: PMC3746586  PMID: 24146463

Abstract

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses, where some degree of acculturation exists, so that there is urgency in recording such data. The aim of this work is to catalogue, document, and make known the uses of plants for folk medicine in Dehloran and Abdanan districts, Ilam Province, Iran. An analysis was made of the species used, parts of the plant employed, preparation methods, administration means, and the ailments treated in relation to pathological groups. A folk botanical survey was carried out from February 2007 to October 2009. The information was collected from 81 persons (60% men and 40% women) in 20 villages. The informants reported data on 122 species, belonging to 49 botanical families, were claimed as medicinal. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 95% of the pharmaceutical uses. The most commonly represented families were Asteraceae (37.5%), Lamiaceae (20.8%), Rosaceae (18.7%), Fabaceae (16.7%) and Apiaceae (14.6%). Some of the uses were found to be new when compared with published literature on ethnomedicine of Iran. The folk knowledge about medicinal plant use is still alive in the studied region, and a number of scarcely reported plant uses has been detected, some of them with promising phytotherapeutical applications. The results of the study reveal that some of species play an important role in primary healthcare system of these tribal communities.

Keywords: Medicinal plants, ethnobotany, folklore plant, Ilam

Introduction

The Ilam province is situated on the west of Iran. This province known as “Thyme land or locally as Sarzamin-e-Avishan” and it is principally a mountainous region with plains following the direction of West Zagros range. It borders Khuzestan province in the south, Lurestan province in the east, Kermanshah province in the north and Iraq in the west with 425 kms of common border (Figure 1). Ilam is located between latitude 31° 58′ to 34° 15′ N and longitude 45° 24′ to 48° 10′ E. It occupies an area of 19,086 km2. The elevation range is between 50 m above sea level in the south to 3060 m above sea level in the west province (Kabirkooh Mountain).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Frequency of plant families used in Dehloran and Abdanan district, Ilam province, Iran

The climate of the region is influenced with its varied elevation. Annually, it generally rains 200 mm in the south and 500 mm in the north and the period of winter, the minimum temperature can reach −15°C in north and summer is day with maximum temperature between 45°C in south. Humidity is generally high especially in the winter (Dec–Mar) months (Ilam Meteorology Office, 2010).

The natural vegetation is rangeland and oak forest. Flora of Ilam province is extremely rich with about 1000 species of plant (Mozaffarian, 2008). The present study focused on the current status of knowledge of folk medicine in Abdanan and Dehloran districts. These districts are situated on the west and southwest of Ilam province. The Ilam population is predominantly Feyli Kurdish. The province total population was 545,787 in 2006. The population of Abdanan and Dehloran was 47,370 and 62,256 in 2006, respectively. The northern part of the province is mostly inhabited by Kurdish tribes who speak with two dialects: Kalhuri and Feyli. The majority are Feyli Kurds, such as Kurdish tribes of Khezel, Arkawâzi, Beyrey (Ali Sherwan), Malekshahi and Shuhan. Lurs live in the southern and eastern parts of the province; for example: Abdanan, Dareh Shahr, Dehloran and Mehran. Most are Shi'a Muslims. The Kurds are traditionally nomadic people. The people's main source of living in this region is farming, agriculture, sheepherding and husbandry (MPOI, 2003).

Plants have always had an important role to play in medicine and public health. The knowledge on the use of medicinal plants was acquired by trial and error and handed on from generation to generation (Ghorbani, 2005). Nevertheless, handing down of this knowledge is in danger due to bad contacts between older and younger generations. Iran has a long medical tradition and traditional learning of medicinal plants (Ghorbani, 2005). Some authors have investigated the traditional pharmacopeia and medicinal plants in different areas of Iran (Afshar, 1990; Amin, 1991; Ayiineh Chii, 1989; Ghasemi Pirbalouti, 2009; Ghorbani, 2005; Hovayzeh et al., 2001; Miraldi et al., 2001; Mir-Heidari, 1993; Salehi Surmaghi et al., 1992; Zargari, 1989–1992). However, no information is available on the medicinal plants of the Ilam communities. In order to record all these medicinal knowledge, new or rare uses of medicinal plants and to record any use of plants in the region, the ethnobotanical survey of Ilam communities is undertaken.

The aims of this paper are:

  • The documentation of indigenous medicinal plants used in Ilam, Iran

  • The assessment of uses of the native species

  • The description of the most common preparations made from herbal drugs used in Ilam ethnomedicine.

Materials and Methods

Plant material

This study investigated plant material used for medicinal purposes within communities located in the Dehloran and Abdanan district, Ilam province, and involved 122 plant species. The plant specimens were collected either in the flowering or the fruiting condition, preferably both. A specimen of each species with a size of about 30 cm was collected. Each specimen was numbered as and when it was collected and the detailed notes were entered in the field note book. All the collected specimens were properly processed. Provisional identifications of specimens were made with the help of “Flora of Iran” (Ghahreman, 1987–1989), “Flora of Ilam” (Mozaffarian, 2008), “Encyclopedia of Iranian Plants” (Mozaffarian, 1996), Flora Iranica” (Rechinger, 1963–1998), etc. Later identifications were confirmed with the help of the authentic specimens deposited at the Herbarium of Researches Centre of Agriculture and Natural Resources of Ilam, Iran.

Experimental

An ethnobotanical survey of Abdanan and Dehloran districts, Ilam province, was conducted during February 2007 to October, 2009. The data of native medicinal plants were collected from 81 individuals comprised of herbal practitioners, young and elders (60% men and 40% women) in 20 villages, mostly of the southern and western parts of the area. The informants were between the age of 22 to 65 years. The information was collected through questionnaire, interviews and discussions among the tribal practitioners in their local language (Kurdish). A semi-structured questionnaire was used to extract information on types of ailments treated by the use of medicinal plants and plant parts used in treating the respective ailments (Appendix 1).

Data analyses

The data collected during the fieldwork have been entered and analyzed in a database generated with Microsoft Excel 2007 (Microsoft Corporation) software. The results have been structured in a plant catalogue that considers the following items: plants mentioned (including scientific, English, Persian and local names); botanical families which these plants belong to; medicinal, edible and non edible uses separated by the part of the plant employed, and also other utilizations that can have ethnobotanical interest. Pharmaceutical methods of preparing the remedies are also part of the catalogue, as well as if the plant referred can be part of a mixture. Comparisons between the plants claimed as useful by our informants and those previously reported have been carried out consulting other previous works on ethnobotany, economic botany, medicinal plants and phytotherapy. It has been considered as very scarcely reported those not found in these papers, or appearing only in a maximum of three of them. This method has allowed us to determine the degree of originality and novelty of the uses claimed by the informants.

Results

Medicinal plants reported

The present study revealed that a total of 122 plants belonging to 106 genera and 49 families have been documented for their therapeutic use against different diseases (Table 1 and Figure 1). Most of the medicinal plants are collected from wild (∼93%) and only nine species (7%) are cultivated in an area, either in gardens or fields (Trifolium repens, Sesamum indicum, Nicotiana tabacum, Salix alba, Rosa damascena, Pimpinella anisum, Medicago sativa, Cannabis sativa and Crocus sativus). Among them 84 were herbs (68%), 21 were shrubs (17%) and 18 were trees (15%) (Figure 2). The most commonly represented families were Asteraceae (37.5%), Lamiaceae (22.92%), Rosaceae (18.75%), Fabaceae (16.67%) and Apiaceae (14.58%), Brassicaceae (10.42%) and Chenopodiaceae (8.33%) (Figure 1). The most abundant genus was Centaurea, three species; Allium, Amygdalus, Artemisia, Astragalus, Cerasus, Crocus, Ferula, Pisachia, Rosa, Scrophularia, Salvia, Xanthium and Ziziphus had two species (Table 1).

Table 1.

Medicinal plants used by Kurdish community in Dehloran and Abdanan districts, Elam province, Iran

Row Scientific Name Family name Elam Kurdish
name
Persian name English name Habit Life cycle Parts used Way of
application
Uses/Ailments treated
1 Achillea biebersteinii
Afan.
Asteraceae Boomaro, Berenj
daz, Gol Zard
Boomadaran-e-Zard Yarrow H Perennial Flowers, Leaves External/Internal Indigestion, rheumatism, sedative
(toothache), anti-septic and
hemagglutinate
2 Adianthum capillus-veneris
L.
Polypodiaceae Kamar Avizeh,
Bareh za
Parsiavoushan Southern
maidenhair,
Venus's hair
H Perennial Flowers, Leaves Internal Anti-septic, kidney pain, anti-calculus,
analgesia and hair color
3 Adonis dentate Delile. Ranunculaceae Gol Zarde Cheshme
Khorous, Gol
Khorousak
Adonis, bird's
eye
H Annual Flower Internal digestive discords and indigestion,
Joundice
4 Alhagi persarum
Boiss. &
Buhse.
Fabaceae Agoul, Aghol Kharshootor,
Toranjabin
Camel's thorn H Perennial Stems, Leaves Internal Anti-calculus, anti-septic, kidney
problems, urine tube infection and
laxative (for baby)
5 Allium akaka
Gmelin.
Aliaceae or
Liliaceae
Aneshk, Anesh,
Valk
Valk Ramsons
broad, bear's
garlic
H Perennial Leaves, Bulbs Internal Appetizer, anti-septic, anti-calculus,
anti-parasite and good digestive
system
6 Allium ampeloprasum L.
subsp. iranicum Wendelbo
Aliaceae or
Liliaceae
Tareg Tareh Koohi,
Piaz Kalagh
Perennial
sweet leek,
great round-headed
garlic
H Perennial Leaves, Bulbs Internal Anti-septic, kidney infection, urine
infection, anti-calculus, gastric pain,
intestinal problem and culinary
7 Alcea angulata (Freyn &
Sint) Freyn & Sint. Ex Iljin
Malvaceae Gole hirou Khatmi Mallow H Perennial Roots External/Internal Burn, cut wound and
emollient
8 Alyssum minus (L.) Rothm. Brassicaceae Ghedameh Ghodomeh Alyssum H Annual Fruits Internal Emollient, cough, sore throat and eyes
discords
9 Amygdalus arabica Olivier. Rosaceae Bayem, Vayem Badam-e-Koohi Almond T Perennial Fruits Internal/External Child ear pain, body pain (for animal)
and analgesic, bronchitis, anti-calculus
and digestive discords
10 Amygdalus lycioides Spach. Rosaceae Taneges Tangras Almond T Perennial Fruits External Good hair condition
11 Rhamnus pallasii Fisch. &
C. A. Mey
Rhamnaceae Arjan Siah tangress Buckthorn S Perennial Fruits Internal Cold, emollient, cough
and sore throat
12 Anthemis altissima L. Asteraceae Babineh Babooneh Chamomile H Annual Flower External/Internal Indigestion and skin whiting
13 Aristolochia olivieri
Collegno in Boiss.
Aristolochiaceae Zaravand Chopoghak Dutchman'spipe H Perennial Leaves, Stem External Dermal discords and wound
14 Calendula persica C. A.
Mey.
Asteraceae Golzardeh Hamisheh
Bahar-e-Irani
Iranian
marigold
H Annual Flower External Dermal discords, wound
and eczema
15 Artemisia sieberi
Besser.
Asteraceae Bookhoshkeleh Dermaneh-e-Zagrosi Wormwood H Annual Stems, Leaves Internal Anti-parasite, anti-diarrheal
and stomachic
16 Artemisia scoparia Waldst.
& Kit.
Asteraceae Salmaneh Jaroy-e-Mashhadi Oriental worm wood H Annual/biennial Inflorescence Internal Indigestion, emollient
and sore throat
17 Astaragalus glaucacanthus
Fisch.
Fabaceae Miveh badkonaki Asbi gavan Astragal S Perennial Fruits Internal Used in food and confectionery, tonic,
gastric pain, headache
and wild fruit
18 Astragalus gossypinus
Fisch.
Fabaceae Gavan Gavan-e-panbehi Astragal S Perennial Resin External/Internal Good hair condition
and cold
19 Cotoneaster lurestanica
Klotz.
Rosaceae Shir khesht Shirkhesht-e-lorestani Cotoneaster S Perennial Resin Internal Laxative for baby
20 Atriplex leucoclada (Boiss.)
Aellen.
Chenopodiaceae Ramt Salmaki saghe
safid
Saltbush H Perennial Leaves Internal Emollient, cough and
sore throat
21 Avena wiestii Steud. Poaceae Ganem giah Youlaf Wild oat H Annual Seed Internal Gastric pain, indigestion, rheumatism
and tonic
22 Cannabis sativa L. Canabinaceae Shadone Shahdoneh Hemp H Annual Fruits Internal Seed use for nut, laxative, anti-parasite,
tonic, cough and nerve
system discords
23 Capparis spinosa L. Capparidaceae Kelkam,
Shafileh, Shafalk
Kavar Caper H/S Perennial Leaves, Roots,
Bark and Fruits
Internal Root bark: hepato-protective, Stem
bark:toothache, Leaves and
Fruits:Regulation of blood sugar
24 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. Brassicaceae Tof veh sereh Ozmak Hoary cress H Perennial Young leaves Internal Culinary and tonic
25 Carthamus oxyacantha M.B. Asteraceae Khar kharon,
Zardeh siri,
Zardeh drag
Golerang-e-zard Safflower H Annual Flowers Internal For women period discords
and menorrhagia
26 Centaurea iberica Trev. Ex
Spreng.
Asteraceae Asan darag Gole Gandom-e-chaman
zar
Centaurea H Annual Flowers Internal Gastric pain
27 Centaurea intricate Boiss. Asteraceae Benjek dargi Gole Gandom-e-darham
barham
Centaurea H Perennial Flowers Internal Indigestion and gastric pain
28 Centaurea ovina Pall. Ex
Willd.
Asteraceae Tilage Gole Gandom Centaurea H Annual Flowers Internal Indigestion and gastric pain
29 Cerasus mahaleb (L.)
Miller.
Rosaceae Beralik,
Heloneh,
Mahloo
Mahlab Mahaleb
cherry
T Perennial Fruits Internal Laxative, anti-calculus, culinary and
spice and
wild fruit: stomachic
30 Cerasus microcarpa (C.A.
Mey) Boiss. subsp.
microcarpa
Rosaceae Beralik, Helaneh Albaloy-e-vahshi Sour cherry T Perennial Bark, Resin Internal Sedative, anti-calculus
and anti-fever
31 Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae Kasni Kasni Chicory H Perennial Root, Stem,
Leaves
Internal/External Laxative, diuretic, gastric pain and
dermal discords
32 Cirsium congestum Fisch. &
C. A. mey. Ex DC.
Asteraceae Kangar darag Kagar-e-anboh Bull thistle H Biannual Stem Internal Anti-septic for gastric
33 Citrullus colocynthis (L.)
Schrad.
Cucurbitaceae Shoomi
sheytoneh,
Shomi tilaneh
Hanzal,
Hendevaneh
Abougahl
Citrul/Citrule H Perennial Fruits External/Internal Diabetes and wound
34 Colchicum kotschyi Boiss. Iridaceae Kirgeh keh ran Gol-e-hasrat Autumn
saffron
H Perennial Flowers External Rheumatism
35 Crataegus pontica C. Koch. Rosaceae Gich Zalzalak Azarole T Perennial Fruits, Leaves Internal Edible as wild fruit, heart tonic,
antihypertensive
and headache
36 Crocus haussknechtii Boiss. Iridaceae Pishog Joo ghasem Crocus H Perennial Flowers Internal Anti-septic for gastric
and stomachic
37 Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae Kal mas Zaferan Saffron H Perennial Stigma, Style Internal Breezy, tonic for heart and culinary
use
38 Daphne mucronata Royle. Thymelaeaceae Toye, alef Khoshak Daphne S Perennial Wood External Cleaning eyes and eye pain (Surmeh)
39 Datura innoxia Miller. Solanaceae Tatureh Datureh-e-goldorosht Hindu datura H Annual Latex External Anti-wart
40 Consolida orientalis (Gey)
Schrood.
Ranunculaceae Zaban ghafa Zaban pas
ghafa-e-denae
Larkspur H Annual Flowers Internal Laxative and anti-parasite
41 Dianthus orientalis Adam. Caryophylaceae Gole Mikhak Mikhak Pink H Perennial Flowers, Fruits External/Internal Toothache and anti-spasm
42 Echinops viscidulus Mozaff. Asteraceae Ghane shakrook Shekar Tighal Globe thistle H Perennial Bulb Internal Cough, cold, sore throat and edible as
vegetable
43 Echium italicum L. Boraginaceae Gole gazou Gavzaban Viper's
bugloss
H Biannual Flower Internal Nervous system relaxant, carminative,
cold, sore throat, wound and soporific
44 Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Elaeagnaceae Ardegon Sanjed,
Pestanak
Oleaster T Perennial Fruits Internal Anti-diarrheal, gastric pain
and hepatoprotective
45 Ephedra ciliata
Fisch. ex C. A. Mey
Ephedraceae Rish boz, Kori feri Ormak, rish
boz
Joint fir S Perennial Root, Stem Internal Anti-bacterial and anti-fever
46 Euphorbia macroclada
Boiss.
Ephurbiaceae Shirghoteghan Farfiun Milkwort H Perennial Latex External Anti-wart
47 Ferula haussknechtii
Wolff ex Rech. f.
Apiaceae Komeh, Komieh Koma Giant fennel H Perennial Stem, Leaves,
Inflorescence
External Anti-septic (smoking)
48 Ferula behboudiana
(Rech. f. & Esfand)
Chamberlain.
Apiaceae Anio Koma-e-lorestani Giant fennel H Perennial Stem, Leaves,
Inflorescence
External Anti-septic (smoking)
49 Ferulago angulata
(Schlecht.) Boiss.
Apiaceae Chavir Chavil-e-shevidi Ferulago H Perennial Leaves Internal Anti-septic, spice and air fresher
50 Ficus carica L. Moraceae Anjir Anjir Fig T Perennial Fruits, Latex Internal/External Laxative, cough and anti-wart
51 Fritillaria imperialis L. Liliaceae Sosan gol Ashke
maryam,
Laleh vajhgon
Crown
imperial
H Perennial Bulb External Rheumatism and sciatica
52 Fumaria parviflora Lam. Fumariaceae Shatareh Shahtareh-e-irani Fumitory H Annual Flowers, Stem, Leaves External Dermal discords, wound
and eczema
53 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. var.
glabra
Fabaceae Balik Shirin bayan Licorice H Perennial Roots, Flowers Internal Gastric ulcer, digestive discords,
duodenal pain, stomach stranger,
diabetes, intestinal pain and culinary
54 Gundelia tournefortii L. Asteraceae Kenyer Kangar - H Perennial Leaves, Stem Internal Edible as vegetable, indigestion,
tonic, laxative,
anti-calculus, diabetes and culinary
55 Hypericum scabrum L. Hypericaceae Siveh ran Gol-e-raye St. John's wort H Perennial Inflorescence Internal Green tea, sedative, headache and
nerve system relaxant
56 Isatis raphanifolia Boiss. Brassicaceae Vasmeh Vasmeh Dyer's woad H Annual Root, Leaves,
Seed
External Coloring for hair
57 Lonicera nummulariifolia
Jaub. & Spach.
Caprifoliaceae Pela khor, Shan Pelakhor Lonicera S Perennial Leaves, Flowers Internal Anti-fever, anti-diarrheal, sedative
and cough
58 Lycium depressum Stocks. Solanaceae Khoshk Gorg tigh Wolf berry S Perennial Leaves, Fruits Internal/External Kidney problems
59 Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae Toli, Tole Panirak Mallow H Annual,
biennial
Leaves, Flowers Internal Interstitial infection, laxative, sore
throat and asthma
60 Medicago sativa L. Fabaceae Vinjeh Younjeh alfalfa H Perennial Leaves, Flowers Internal Tonic and fattening
61 Mentha longifolia
(L.) Hudson.
Lamiaceae Pineh Pooneh,
Podneh
Horsemint H Perennial Leaves, Flowers Internal Carminative, edible as vegetable and
flavoring
62 Myrtus communis L. Myrtaceae Moort Mord Myrtle T Perennial Leaves External/Internal Anti-septic (smoking), women
diseases, wound (antimicrobial)
and air freshener
63 Narcissus tazetta L. Amaryllidaceae Gole Narges Narges Polyanthus
narcissus
H Perennial Flowers and
Bulb
Internal/External Flowers: Aromatic or aromatherapy
(sedative, headache and cold), anti-parasite
and abortion
64 Nasturtium officinale
(L.) R. Br.
Brassicaceae Koleh shak,
Balmak
Alaf-e-cheshmeh Water cress H Perennial Leaves, Flowers,
Roots
Internal Stomachic, anti-parasite
65 Nepeta persica Boiss. Lamiaceae Poneh say Poneh say-e-Irani Catmint H Perennial Leaves,Flowers Internal/External Carminative and anti-urticarial
66 Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae Hortil, Jeleh,
Gharjalak
Kharzahreh,
Kish
Oleander S Perennial Leaves, Flowers,
Latex
External/Internal External: Burn, wound healing and
eczema, Internal: diuretic and heart
tonic
67 Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae Tanbakoo Toton Tobacco H Annual Leaves External Anti-leech (Limnatis nilotica),
anti-dermatophytosis and used veterinary (health animal)
68 Noaea mucronata (Forssk.)
Asch &Schweinf.
Chenopodiaceae Khargo Nakhon-e-aroos - S Perennial Leaves, Flowers Internal Anti-calculus
69 Onobrychis elymaitica
Boiss. & Hausskn. ex
Boiss.
Fabaceae Pieh kol Speres-e-elami Sainfoin H Perennial Leaves, Flowers Internal Anti-calculus, kidney problems
70 Opoponex hispidus (Friv.)
Griseb.
Apiaceae Alaf shir Koma Opopnax H Annual Stem, Leaves,
Inflorescence
External Anti-septic (smoking)
71 Paliurus spina-christi
Miller.
Rhamnaceae Dereg dar Siyah telo Christ's thorn S Perennial Fruits Internal Anti-hypertensive and
reduced cholesterol
72 Papaver dubium L. Papaveraceae Gole soreh Khashkash-e-tannaz Great scarlet
poppy
H Annual Leaves, Flowers Internal Nerve system relaxant,
sedative
73 Peganum harmala L. Zygophyllaceae Span Spand, Sphand Harmel
peganum
H Perennial Fruits, Seeds External Anti-septic for air, scorpion bite,
snake bite, toothache
and soporific
74 Periploca aphylla Decne. Asclepiadaceae Kholf Gishder Silk vine S Perennial Leaves, Flowers External Anti-inflammatory
75 Phlomis olivieri Benth. Lamiaceae Labeh goshak,
Giveh balkeh
Goshbareh,
Bareh Gosh,
Chalmah
Phlomis H Perennial Leaves, Flowers Internal Carminative
76 Physalis divaricata D. Don. Solanaceae Arosak postheh
pardeh
Arosak postheh
pardeh
Winter cherry H Annual Fruits Internal Kidney discords
77 Picnomon acarna (L.) Cass. Asteraceae Gemal diom Zard khar Yellow plume
thistle
H Annual Leaves Internal Indigestion, gastric discords
and stomachic
78 Pimpinella anisum L. Apiaceae Vaveh shing Badian romi Anise H Annual Fruits Internal Carminative and culinary use
79 Pistachia atlantica Desf. Anacardiacea Banak, Kalang
Kaleh, Kaleh
van
Pesteh
Koohi/Baneh
Pistache T Perennial Fruits, Resin Internal Mind stranger, anti-hemorrhoid,
laxative, stomach stranger and bone
pain
80 Pistachia khinjuk Stocks. Anacardiacea Koleng Narmeh,
Narmeh van
Khenjuk Pistache T Perennial Fruits, Resin Internal Digestive discords, diuretic, asthma,
stomach stranger and fragrant mouth
81 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Perpelik, Denan
tizkarak
Khorfeh Purslane H Annual Roots, Stem,
Leaves, Latex
Internal Edible as vegetable, anti-parasite
82 Prangos ferulacea (L.)
Lindl.
Apiaceae Bale har, Ginoo Jooshir Prangos H Perennial Leaves, Flowers External/Internal Laxative
83 Prosopis farcta
(Banks & Soland) Macbr.
Mimosaceae Belaveri,
Broweri, Khosh
khah shak
Kahoorak Syrian
mesquite
S Perennial Fruits Internal Blood thinner and anti-diabetic
(Reduction of blood glucose)
84 Quercus brantii Lindl. var
persica (Jaub. & Spach)
Zohary
Fagaceae Bali, Bero Baloot Oak T Perennial Fruits, Seed bark Internal Gastric ulcer, stringent, sore throat
and anti-diabetes
85 Rheum ribes L. Polygonaceae Ribas Rivas Rhubarb H Perennial Stem Internal Edible as vegetable, anti-hypertensive
and
decrease triglyceride
86 Rhus coriaria L. Anacardiaceae Sumakh Sumagh Sicilian sumac S Perennial Fruits Internal Stomachic, anti-diarrheal,
tonic, digestive discords and culinary
use
87 Rosa canina L. Rosaceae Goltieureg Nastaran-e-vahshi Dog rose S Perennial Flowers Internal Indigestion
88 Rosa damascena Mill. Rosaceae Gol bakhi Gol-e-mohammadi Persian rose S Perennial Flowers Internal Indigestion
89 Rubus anatolicus (Focke.)
Focke ex Hausskn.
Rosaceae Tiyarak Tameshk barg
narvani
Elm-leaved
blackberry
S Perennial Fruits Internal Stomachic, anti-parasite
90 Rumex ephedroides
Bornm.
Polygonaceae Torsheh mast Torshak-e-rishbozi Dock H Annual Leaves External Anti-inflammatory
91 Salix alba L. Salicaceae Vi, Bi Bid-e-sephid White willow T Perennial Bark, Leaves Internal/External Anti-fever
92 Salsola vermiculata L. Chenopodiaceae Shoor Alaf shoor-e-sharghi Saltwort, R S Perennial Stem, Leaves Internal Laxative, anti-ascorbic
93 Salvia palaestina Benth. Lamiaceae Cherogi Maryam goli
falestini
Annual clary H Annual Leaves,
Inflorescence
Internal Women fertility and women
infections
94 Scrophularia deserti Del. Scrophulariaceae Benjek mashin, Gol-e-maymoni Figwort H Perennial Stem, Leaves External Wound and burn healing
and antimicrobial
95 Salvia sclarea L. Lamiaceae Maryam goli Maryam goli Clary H Perennial Leaves, Seed,
Inflorescence
Internal Cold and anti-fever
96 Satureja khuzistanica
Jamzad.
Lamiaceae Jatareh Marzeh Summer
savory
H Annual Leaves, Stem,
Flowers
Internal Indigestion, headache, gastric pain,
women infections, diuretic and spice
97 Scrophularia striata
Boiss.
Scrophulariaceae Teshneh dari Gol-e-maymoni Figwort H Perennial Stem, Leaves External Wound and burn healing
and antimicrobial
98 Seidlitzia rosmarinus (Ehrh.)
Bge.
Chenopodiaceae Benjak shenan,
Hejhedan
Eshnan Seidlitzia S Perennial Leaves External Used as washing, good hair condition
and plant shampoo
99 Sesamum indicum L. Pedaliaceae Konjed Konjed Sesame H Annual Seed External Burn healing
100 Sinapis arvensis L. Brassicaceae Khartal, Terpeki Khardal-e-zagrosi Mustard H Annual Stem, Flowers Internal Laxative and stomachic
101 Smyrnium cordifolium
Boiss.
Apaiacea Pinomeh, Vangi Avandol Alexanders H Biannual Stem Internal Indigestion and stomachic
102 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Roarazak,
tamato kivi leh
Sag angor,
Tajrizi-e-siyah
Black
nightshade
H Annual Fruits External Skin diseases, wound healing
and eczema
103 Sorghum halepense (L.)
Pers.
Poaceae Helit Ghiagh,
Chaeer
Johnson grass H Perennial Leaves, Stem,
Flowers
Internal Abortion for human and animals
104 Stachys lavandulifolia
Vahl.
Lamiaceae Colpar Sonbolehei Stachys H Perennial Leaves, Flowers Internal Carminative, rheumatism, indigestion,
headache, sedative, cardio tonic and
anti-anxiety
105 Stipa capensis Thunb. Poaceae Gol koo,
Bahmah giah
Chaman sozani Needle grass H Annual Flowers Internal Nerve system problems
and gastric discords
106 Tamarix ramosissima
Ledeb. saltcedar
Tamaricaceae Shoor gaz Gaz-e-shahi Tamarisk T Perennial Leaves and
Resin
Internal/External Dermal discords, wound healing and
sputum
107 Tanacetum polycephalum
Schultz.
Asteraceae Samsa Minay-e-porkopeh Tansy H Perennial Leaves External Anti-hemorrhoid,
anti-inflammatory and sting
108 Teucrium polium L. Lamiaceae Miyere nekhe Maryam
nokhodi
Germander H Perennial Leaves, Flowers Internal Anti-septic for gastric and fragrant
mouth
109 Thymbra spicata L. Lamiaceae Azboh, Hazboh Avishan-e-zophaye Thyme H Perennial Leaves and
Inflorescence
Internal Spice, cough, antibacterial
and carminative
110 Tragopogon graminifolius
DC.
Asteraceae Haplook Shang Salsify H Annual Root, Flowers Internal/External Emollient, sore throat
and wound healing
111 Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae She pareh Shabdar-e-sephid White clover H Biannual Leaves and
Inflorescence
Internal/External Analgesia and dermal discords
112 Typha domingensis Pers. Typhaceae Lovan Loei Cat's tail H Perennial Pollen, Rhizome Internal Anti-fever
113 Ulmus glabra Hudson. Ulmaceae Vazam Narvan-e-barg riz Elm T Perennial Leaves Internal Heart discords
and fertility discords
114 Verbascum alepense Benth. Scrophulariaceae Gol zardeh Gol-e-mahour Mullein H Perennial Leaves and
Flowers
Internal/External Anti-fever, dermal discords
and wound healing
115 Vicia angustifolia L. Fabaceae Masheh maran Mashak-e-barg
pahn
Narbonne
vetch
H Annual Fruits Internal Cough
116 Viscum album L. Loranthaceae Darpechanak Darvash White
mistletoe
T Perennial Leaves, Stem,
Flowers
External/Internal Body pain, knew joint pain
and abscess
117 Vitex pseudo-negundo
(Hausskn.) Hand-mzt.
Verbenaceae Keref, Kerof Bangaro Chaste tree S Perennial Leaves Internal Increased milk
118 Xanthium spinosum L. Asteraceae Chazanak Zardineh Cocklebur H Annual Leaves and
Fruits
External Dermal discords, diuretic
119 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae Chazanak Zardineh Cocklebur H Annual Leaves and
Fruits
Internal Laxative, stomach, tonic
120 Ziziphora capitata L. Lamiaceae Kakooti Moshk
taramoshk
Ziziphora H Annual Leaves and
Inflorescence
Internal Spice and culinary
121 Ziziphus nummularia
(Burm. F.) Wighth & Arn.
Ramnaceae Darak, Konar Ramlik Camel thorn T Perennial Leaves and
Fruits
External Gastric pain and stomachic
122 Ziziphus spina-christi (L.)
Willd.
Rhamnaceae Sedr, Azakonar Konar Christ's thorn T Perennial Leaves and
Fruits
External Anti-dandruff and anti-hair loss

Habit: T: Tree, S: Shrub, H: Herb

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Frequency of habit plants used in Dehloran and Abdanan district, Ilam province, Iran

Plant parts used, preparation and administration

Leaves (30%) are the most widely used plant parts even solely or mixed with other parts, followed by flowers (22%), fruits (13%) and stem (10%) in some cases the whole plant (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Frequency of plant parts used in Dehloran and Abdanan district, Ilam province, Iran

Culinary and spice uses

At present, 14 plants are collected in the study area for their use in culinary, spice and food. Among them, 10 species are reported also for therapeutic use (see Table 1); 3 are used only as food. The villagers employ Crocus sativus, Cerasus mahaleb, Ferulago angulata, Mentha longifolia, Pimpinella anisum, Satureja khuzistanica, Thymbra spicata, Ziziphora capitata and Rhus coriaria as flavoring agents. The leaves and stem of Mentha longifolia, Portulaca oleracea, Rheum ribes, Allium ampeloprasum subsp. iranicum and bulbs of Echinops viscidulus are used as wild vegetables. The fruits of Crataegus azarolus, Cerasus mahaleb, Ficus carica, Pistachia atlantica, Pistachia khinjuk, Prosopis farcta, Rubus anatolicus, Ziziphus nummularia, Ziziphus spina-christi, Amygdalus arabica, Amygdalus lycioides and Elaeagnus angustifolia are used as wild fruit. Astaragalus glaucacanthus are used as culinary and confectionery, tonic, gastric pain, headache and or as wild fruit. They boil tender leaves of Cardaria draba to prepare soups and Gundelia tournefortii to prepare pickled.

Ailments treated

The 122 medicinal plant species were used in treating 79 different types of ailments (Table 2). The highest number of plant species (17 species) was used for the treatment of gastric disorders followed by antiseptic, indigestion, laxative and wound healing (14 species).

Table 2.

Major ailments treated by the local inhabitants of the Dehloran and Abdanan regions, Ilam Province, Iran using medicinal plants species

S. no. Ailments No. of plants Percentage
1 Gastric pain 17 5.69
2 Anti-septic 14 4.68
3 Indigestion 14 4.68
4 Laxative 14 4.68
5 Wound Healing 14 4.68
6 Anti-calculus 10 3.34
7 Stomachic 10 3.34
8 Cough 9 3.01
9 Sore throat 9 3.01
10 Anti-parasite 8 2.68
11 Dermal discords 8 2.68
12 Tonic 8 2.68
13 Anti-fever 7 2.34
14 Carminative 7 2.34
15 Cold 6 2.01
16 Digestive 6 2.01
17 Emollient 6 2.01
18 Headache 6 2.01
19 Kidney pain 6 2.01
20 Regulation Blood sugar 6 2.01
21 Sedative 6 2.01
22 Burn healing 5 1.67
23 Diuretic 5 1.67
24 Hair treatment 5 1.67
25 Rheumatism 5 1.67
26 Anti-diarrheal 4 1.34
27 Anti-Inflammatory 4 1.34
28 Eczema 4 1.34
29 Heart tonic 4 1.34
30 Nerve System Discords 4 1.34
31 Toothache 4 1.34
32 Anti-microbial 3 1.00
33 Anti-wart 3 1.00
34 Stomach stranger 3 1.00
35 Ethno-Veterinary 3 1.00
36 Abortion 2 0.67
37 Analgesia 2 0.67
38 Anti-hemorrhoid 2 0.67
39 Anti-hypertensive 2 0.67
40 Body pain 2 0.67
41 Fragrant mouth 2 0.67
42 Soporific 2 0.67
43 Women infections 2 0.67
44 Abscess 1 0.33
45 Anti-anxiety 1 0.33
46 Anti-ascorbic 1 0.33
47 Anti-bacterial 1 0.33
48 Anti-dandruff 1 0.33
49 Anti-hair loss 1 0.33
50 Anti-leech 1 0.33
51 Anti-Tumor 1 0.33
52 Anti-urticarial 1 0.33
53 Appetizer 1 0.33
54 Blood thinner 1 0.33
55 Bone pain 1 0.33
56 Bronchits 1 0.33
57 Child ear pain 1 0.33
58 Decrease triglyceride 1 0.33
59 Duodenal pain 1 0.33
60 Eyes discords 1 0.33
61 Fattening 1 0.33
62 Fertility discords 1 0.33
63 Heart discords 1 0.33
64 Hemagglutinate 1 0.33
65 Hepatoprotective 1 0.33
66 Increased milk 1 0.33
67 Intestinal Problem 1 0.33
68 Joundice 1 0.33
69 Knew joint pain 1 0.33
70 Menorrhagia 1 0.33
71 Mind stranger 1 0.33
72 sputum 1 0.33
73 Reduced Cholesterol 1 0.33
74 Sciatica 1 0.33
75 Scorpion bite 1 0.33
76 Snake bit 1 0.33
77 Sting 1 0.33
78 Urine Tube 1 0.33
79 Women Period disords 1 0.33

Veterinary uses

Interviewees have mentioned few species for treatment of animals. Nicotina tabacum (reported by the 10% of informants) is only used in veterinary medicine, as anti-parasitic (Anti-leech for example: Limnatis nilotica) and antifungal (antidermatophytosis) for external use. Sorghum halepense and Amygdalus arabica, used commonly for humans (see Table 1), are employed as remedies for domestic animals. The leaf and stem of Sorghum halepense is administered externally to animals for abortion. The oil seed of Amygdalus arabica is used externally for body pain.

Marketability of medicinal plants

Nicotiana tabacum used as a stimulant (smoking), Cannabis sativa is used as a nut, while Sesamum indicum is used as a culinary agent and nut (oil crop) and Crocus sativus is used as a spice and culinary (color and flavor of rice and other foods) medicinal plants were sold in the market for their respective indications.

Discussions and conclusions

In present study, we have compared our ethnobotanical data with the data present in Iranian Medicinal plant literatures (Afshar, 1990; Amin, 1991; Ayiineh Chii, 1989; Ghasemi Pirbalouti, 2009a,b; Ghorbani, 2005; Hovayzeh et al., 2001; Miraldi et al., 2001; Mir-Heidari, 1993; Rojhan, 1991; Salehi Surmaghi et al., 1992; Zargari, 1989–1992). Most of the plants indicated by the interviewees are reported in Iranian literature, but not in every occasion were the actions attributed to a plant the same. For example, there are not reports in the official Iranian phytotherapy of the use of Atriplex leucoclada and Echinops viscidulus as an emollient, cough and sore throat; Avena wiestii as treatment of gastric pain and rheumatism; Centaurea iberica, Centaurea ovina, Centaurea intricate and Picnomon acarna as treatment of gastric pain; Cerasus microcarpa subsp. microcarpa as sedative, anti-calculus and anti-fever; Cirsium congestum and Crocus haussknechtii as anti-septic for gastric; Colchicum kotschyi as treatment of rheumatism; Consolida orientalis as laxative and anti-parasite, Ephedra ciliata as anti-bacterial and anti-fever, Euphorbia macroclada as treatment of wart; Lonicera nummulariifolia as anti-fever, anti-diarrheal and sedative; Nepeta persica as carminative and anti-urticarial; Noaea mucronata and Onobrychis elymaitica as anti-calculus and kidney problems; Opoponex hispidus as antiseptic; Prangos ferulacea as laxative; Periploca aphylla as anti-inflammatory; Prosopis farcta as blood thinner and anti-diabetic (reduction of blood glucose); Salvia palaestina as women fertility and women infections; Satureja khuzistanica as indigestion; headache, women infections and diuretic; Scrophularia deserti and Scrophularia striata as wound and burn healing; Stipa capensis as treatment of nerve system problems and gastric discords; Tamarix ramosissima as treatment of dermal discords, wound healing and sputum ; Thymbra spicata as treatment of cough, antibacterial and carminative; Ulmus glabra as treatment of heart discords and fertility discords; Verbascum alepense as anti-fever, dermal discords and wound healing; Vitex pseudo-negundo as increased milk; Nicotiana tabacum as treatment animal (Anti-leech and anti-dermatophytosis).

Our study contributed confirmed the ethnobotanical knowledge of Abdanan and Dehloran districts, filling a long overlooked gap. It once more remarked the relationship existing between plant diversity and the degree of ethnobotanical knowledge recorded. The former has been retained thanks to a long history of nature preservation in the study area. It is worth highlighting that we found some young people who still retain ethnobotanical knowledge or at least express interest towards traditional uses, so that they performed well as key informants. This clearly derives from the cultural and professional opportunities offered by living in a famous protected area where nature is still an important issue for local communities. However, even under these circumstances many uses have disappeared and some forgotten by otherwise experienced informants. We believe that cultural diversity should be seen in a broader sense as part of biodiversity of a region, especially where disentangling human influence and nature is virtually impossible. Traditional knowledge should therefore feature more often in the agendas of nature reserves besides biological richness as a value to preserve for the future. In general, the people of the study area still have a strong belief in the efficiency and success of medicinal plants. The results of our study reveal that some of the plant species do play an important role in the primary healthcare system of this tribal community.

Figure 4.

Figure 4

Landscape of cover plants on rangelands in Ilam province, Iran

Acknowledgment

The authors are thanking the tribal people for providing information on the medicinal uses of plants.

Appendix 1

  1. Date

  2. Village

  3. Informant name and surname

  4. Age

  5. Degree of education

  6. Family origins

  7. Which wild plants do you use to treat the different ailments?

  8. How you have learned to recognize them?

  9. Which plant parts do you use?

  10. What is the vernacular name of these plants/part plants?

  11. Can you describe the preparation of remedy in detail?

  12. When should the medicine be taken and for how long?

  13. Internal or external administration?

  14. Where does this knowledge arrive from?

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