Abstract
The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14 provides concise overviews of the key properties of over 2000 human drug targets with their pharmacology, plus links to an open access knowledgebase of drug targets and their ligands (www.guidetopharmacology.org), which provides more detailed views of target and ligand properties. The full contents can be found at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.12444/full.
Nuclear hormone receptors are one of the seven major pharmacological targets into which the Guide is divided, with the others being G protein-coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, ion channels, catalytic receptors, transporters and enzymes. These are presented with nomenclature guidance and summary information on the best available pharmacological tools, alongside key references and suggestions for further reading. A new landscape format has easy to use tables comparing related targets.
It is a condensed version of material contemporary to late 2013, which is presented in greater detail and constantly updated on the website www.guidetopharmacology.org, superseding data presented in previous Guides to Receptors and Channels. It is produced in conjunction with NC-IUPHAR and provides the official IUPHAR classification and nomenclature for human drug targets, where appropriate. It consolidates information previously curated and displayed separately in IUPHAR-DB and the Guide to Receptors and Channels, providing a permanent, citable, point-in-time record that will survive database updates.
An Introduction to Nuclear Hormone Receptors
Nuclear hormone receptors are specialised transcription factors with commonalities of sequence and structure, which bind as homo- or heterodimers to specific consensus sequences of DNA (response elements) in the promoter region of particular target genes. They regulate (either promoting or repressing) transcription of these target genes in response to a variety of endogenous ligands. Endogenous agonists are hydrophobic entities which, when bound to the receptor promote conformational changes in the receptor to allow recruitment (or dissociation) of protein partners, generating a large multiprotein complex.
Two major subclasses of nuclear hormone receptors with identified endogenous agonists can be identified: steroid and non-steroid hormone receptors. Steroid hormone receptors function typically as dimeric entities and are thought to be resident outside the nucleus in the unliganded state in a complex with chaperone proteins, which are liberated upon agonist binding. Migration to the nucleus and interaction with other regulators of gene transcription, including RNA polymerase, acetyltransferases and deacetylases, allows gene transcription to be regulated. Non-steroid hormone receptors typically exhibit a greater distribution in the nucleus in the unliganded state and interact with other nuclear hormone receptors to form heterodimers, as well as with other regulators of gene transcription, leading to changes in gene transcription upon agonist binding.
Selectivity of gene regulation is brought about through interaction of nuclear hormone receptors with particular consensus sequences of DNA, which are arranged typically as repeats or inverted palindromes to allow accumulation of multiple transcription factors in the promoter regions of genes.
Acknowledgments
We wish to acknowledge the tremendous help provided by the Consultants to the Guides past and present (see list in the Overview, p. 1452). We are also extremely grateful for the financial contributions from the British Pharmacological Society, the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, the Wellcome Trust (099156/Z/12/Z]), which support the website and the University of Edinburgh, who host the guidetopharmacology.org website.
Conflict of interest
The authors state that there is no conflict of interest to disclose.
List of records presented
1654 1A. Thyroid Hormone Receptors
1655 1B. Retinoic acid receptors
1656 1C. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors
1657 1D. Rev-Erb receptors
1658 1F. Retinoic acid-related orphans
1659 1H. Liver X receptor-like receptors
1660 1I. Vitamin D receptor-like receptors
1661 2A. Hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 receptors
1662 2B. Retinoid X receptors
1663 2C. Testicular receptors
1664 2E. Tailless-like receptors
1665 2F. COUP-TF-like receptors
1666 3B. Estrogen-related receptors
1667 4A. Nerve growth factor IB-like receptors
1668 5A. Fushi tarazu F1-like receptors
1669 6A. Germ cell nuclear factor receptors
1670 0B. DAX-like receptors
1671 Steroid hormone receptors
1A. Thyroid Hormone Receptors
Overview
Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs, nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR Committee on Nuclear Receptors, 3) are nuclear hormone receptors of the NR1A family, with diverse roles regulating macronutrient metabolism, cognition and cardiovascular homeostasis. TRs are activated by thyroxine (T4) and thyroid hormone (T3). Once activated by a ligand, the receptor acts as a transcription factor either as a monomer, homodimer or heterodimer with members of the retinoid X receptor family. NH-3 has been described as an antagonist at TRs with modest selectivity for TRβ 4.
Comments
An interaction with integrin αVβ3 has been suggested to underlie plasma membrane localization of TRs and non-genomic signalling 1. One splice variant, TRα2, lacks a functional DNA-binding domain and appears to act as a transcription suppressor.
Although radioligand binding assays have been described for these receptors, the radioligands are not commercially available.
1B. Retinoic acid receptors
Overview
Retinoic acid receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR Committee on Nuclear Receptors, 8) are nuclear hormone receptors of the NR1B family activated by the vitamin A-derived agonists all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) and 9-cis-retinoic acid, and the RAR-selective synthetic agonists TTNPB and adapalene.
Nomenclature | Retinoic acid receptor-α | Retinoic acid receptor-β | Retinoic acid receptor-γ |
Systematic nomenclature | NR1B1 | NR1B2 | NR1B3 |
HGNC, UniProt | RARA, P10276 | RARB, P10826 | RARG, P13631 |
Selective agonists (pKi) | Ro 40-6055 7,11,18, BMS753 (8.7) 10 | AC261066 (pEC50 7.9 – 8.1) 15, AC55649 (pEC50 6.5 – 7.3) 15 | AHPN 16 |
Selective antagonists (pKi) | Ro 41-5253 (pIC50 6.3 – 7.2) 6,12 | – | MM 11253 13 |
Comments
Ro 41-5253 has been suggested to be a PPARγ agonist 17. LE135 is an antagonist with selectivity for RARα and RARβ compared with RARγ 14. 9 is a family-selective antagonist.
1C. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors
Overview
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs, nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR Committee on Nuclear Receptors, 33) are nuclear hormone receptors of the NR1C family, with diverse roles regulating lipid homeostasis, cellular differentiation, proliferation and the immune response. PPARs have many potential endogenous agonists 21,33, including 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-PGJ2, prostacyclin (PGI2), many fatty acids and their oxidation products, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) 32, 13-HODE, 15S-HETE, Paz-PC, azelaoyl-PAF and leukotriene B4 (LTB4). bezafibrate acts as a non-selective agonist for the PPAR family 41. These receptors also bind hypolipidaemic drugs (PPARα) and anti-diabetic thiazolidinediones (PPARγ), as well as many non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as sulindac and indomethacin. Once activated by a ligand, the receptor forms a heterodimer with members of the retinoid X receptor family and can act as a transcription factor. Although radioligand binding assays have been described for all three receptors, the radioligands are not commercially available. Commonly, receptor occupancy studies are conducted using fluorescent ligands and truncated forms of the receptor limited to the ligand binding domain.
Nomenclature | Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α | Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-β/δ | Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ |
Systematic nomenclature | NR1C1 | NR1C2 | NR1C3 |
HGNC, UniProt | PPARA, Q07869 | PPARD, Q03181 | PPARG, P37231 |
Selective agonists (pKi) | ciprofibrate, GW7647 (pEC50 8.2) 22,23, CP-775146 (pEC50 7.3) 28, pirinixic acid (pEC50 5.3) 41 | GW501516 (pEC50 9.0) 35, GW0742X (pIC50 9.0) 25,39 | rosiglitazone (pKd 7.4) 27,31,44, GW1929 (8.8) 22, CDDO (Partial agonist) (8.0) 40, troglitazone (5.8) 19, ciglitazone (pEC50 4.6) 27, troglitazone (pIC50 6.3) 27,44, pioglitazone (pIC50 6.2) 27,37,44 |
Selective antagonists (pKi) | GW6471 (pIC50 6.6) 42 | GSK0660 (pIC50 6.5) 38 | T0070907 (9.0) 29, CDDO-Me (6.9) 40, GW9662 (Irreversible inhibition) (pIC50 8.1) 30 |
Comments
As with the estrogen receptor antagonists, many agents show tissue-selective efficacy (e.g. 20,34,36). Agonists with mixed activity at PPARα and PPARγ have also been described (e.g 24,26,43).
1D. Rev-Erb receptors
Overview
Rev-erb receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 45) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand, but are thought to be activated by heme.
Nomenclature | Rev-Erb-α | Rev-Erb-β |
Systematic nomenclature | NR1D1 | NR1D2 |
HGNC, UniProt | NR1D1, P20393 | NR1D2, Q14995 |
Endogenous agonists (pKi) | heme (Selective) 48,49 | heme (Selective) 48,49 |
Selective agonists (pKi) | GSK4112 (pEC50 6.4) 46, GSK4112 (pIC50 5.6) 47 | – |
Selective antagonists (pKi) | SR8278 (pIC50 6.5) 47 | – |
1F. Retinoic acid-related orphans
Overview
Retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptors (ROR, nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR Committee on Nuclear Receptors, 50) have yet to be assigned a definitive endogenous ligand, although RORα may be synthesized with a ‘captured’ agonist such as cholesterol 52,53.
Nomenclature | RAR-related orphan receptor-α | RAR-related orphan receptor-β | RAR-related orphan receptor-γ |
Systematic nomenclature | NR1F1 | NR1F2 | NR1F3 |
HGNC, UniProt | RORA, P35398 | RORB, Q92753 | RORC, P51449 |
Endogenous agonists (pKi) | cholesterol (Selective) 53,54 | – | – |
Selective agonists (pKi) | 7-hydroxycholesterol 51, cholesterol sulphate 51,53 | – | – |
Comments
all-trans-retinoic acid shows selectivity for RORβ within the ROR family 55. RORα has been suggested to be a nuclear receptor responding to melatonin 56.
1H. Liver X receptor-like receptors
Overview
Liver X and farnesoid X receptors (LXR and FXR, nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR Committee on Nuclear Receptors, 62) are members of a steroid analogue-activated nuclear receptor subfamily (ENSFM00500000269785), which form heterodimers with members of the retinoid X receptor family. Endogenous ligands for LXRs include hydroxycholesterols (OHC), while FXRs appear to be activated by bile acids.
Nomenclature | Farnesoid X receptor | Farnesoid X receptor-β | Liver X receptor-α | Liver X receptor-β |
Systematic nomenclature | NR1H4 | NR1H5 | NR1H3 | NR1H2 |
HGNC, UniProt | NR1H4, Q96RI1 | NR1H5P, - | NR1H3, Q13133 | NR1H2, P55055 |
Potency order | chenodeoxycholic acid > lithocholic acid, deoxycholic acid 60,64 | – | 20S-hydroxycholesterol, 22R-hydroxycholesterol, 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol > 25-hydroxycholesterol, 27-hydroxycholesterol 59 | 20S-hydroxycholesterol, 22R-hydroxycholesterol, 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol > 25-hydroxycholesterol, 27-hydroxycholesterol 59 |
Selective agonists (pKi) | GW4064 (pEC50 7.8) 61, ECDCA (pEC50 7.0) 65, fexaramine (pEC50 6.6) 58 | – | – | – |
Selective antagonists (pKi) | guggulsterone (pIC50 5.7 – 6.0) 67 | – | – | – |
Endogenous agonists (pKi) | – | lanosterol (pEC50 6.0 - Mouse) 63 | – | – |
Comments
T0901317 66 and GW3965 57 are synthetic agonists acting at both LXRα and LXRβ with less than 10-fold selectivity. NR1H5P (FXRβ) is a pseudogene in man, but active in the mouse.
1I. Vitamin D receptor-like receptors
Overview
Vitamin D (VDR), Pregnane X (PXR) and Constitutive Androstane (CAR) receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR Committee on Nuclear Receptors, 79) are members of the NR1I family of nuclear receptors, which form heterodimers with members of the retinoid X receptor family. PXR and CAR are activated by a range of exogenous compounds, with no established endogenous physiological agonists, although high concentrations of bile acids and bile pigments activate PXR and CAR79.
Nomenclature | Vitamin D receptor | Pregnane X receptor | Constitutive androstane receptor |
Systematic nomenclature | NR1I1 | NR1I2 | NR1I3 |
HGNC, UniProt | VDR, P11473 | NR1I2, O75469 | NR1I3, Q14994 |
Endogenous agonists (pKi) | 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (pKd 8.9 – 9.2) 68,71 | 17β-estradiol (Selective) 74 | – |
Selective agonists (pKi) | EB1089 (pKd 9.57) 70,84 | hyperforin (pEC50 7.6) 80,83, rifampicin (pEC50 5.5 – 6.0) 69,76, lovastatin (pEC50 5.3 – 6.0) 76, pregnanedione (pIC50 6.4) 74 | TCPOBOP (pEC50 7.7 - Mouse) 82, CITCO (pEC50 7.3) 77 |
Selective antagonists (pKi) | TEI-9647 78, ZK159222 (pIC50 7.5) 72,73 | – | – |
Comment | – | – | clotrimazole 81 and T0901317 75 although acting at other sites, function as antagonists of the constitutive androstane receptor |
2A. Hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 receptors
Overview
Hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 85) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand, although linoleic acid has been described to activate HNF4α receptors.
2B. Retinoid X receptors
Overview
Retinoid X receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR Committee on Nuclear Receptors, 90) are NR2B family members activated by 9-cis-retinoic acid and the RXR-selective agonists bexarotene and LG100268, sometimes referred to as rexinoids. UVI3003 93 and HX531 89 have been described as a pan-RXR antagonists. These receptors form RXR–RAR heterodimers and RXR–RXR homodimers 88,92.
2C. Testicular receptors
Overview
Testicular receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 94) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand, although testicular receptor 4 has been reported to respond to retinoids.
Nomenclature | Testicular receptor 2 | Testicular receptor 4 |
Systematic nomenclature | NR2C1 | NR2C2 |
HGNC, UniProt | NR2C1, P13056 | NR2C2, P49116 |
Endogenous agonists (pKi) | – | all-trans-retinoic acid (Selective) 96, retinol (Selective) 96 |
Comment | Forms a heterodimer with TR4; gene disruption appears without effect on testicular development or function 95 | Forms a heterodimer with TR2 |
2E. Tailless-like receptors
Overview
Tailless-like receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 97) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand.
2F. COUP-TF-like receptors
Overview
COUP-TF-like receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 100) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand.
3B. Estrogen-related receptors
Overview
Estrogen-related receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 104) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand.
Nomenclature | Estrogen-related receptor-α | Estrogen-related receptor-β | Estrogen-related receptor-γ |
Systematic nomenclature | NR3B1 | NR3B2 | NR3B3 |
HGNC, UniProt | ESRRA, P11474 | ESRRB, O95718 | ESRRG, P62508 |
Comment | Activated by some dietary flavonoids 105; activated by the synthetic agonist GSK4716 108 and blocked by XCT790 106 | May be activated by DY131 107 | May be activated by DY131 107 |
4A. Nerve growth factor IB-like receptors
Overview
Nerve growth factor IB-like receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 110) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand.
Nomenclature | Nerve Growth factor IB | Nuclear receptor related 1 | Neuron-derived orphan receptor 1 |
Systematic nomenclature | NR4A1 | NR4A2 | NR4A3 |
HGNC, UniProt | NR4A1, P22736 | NR4A2, P43354 | NR4A3, Q92570 |
Comment | An endogenous agonist, cytosporone B, has been described 113, although structural analysis and molecular modelling has not identified a ligand binding site 109,111,112 | – | – |
5A. Fushi tarazu F1-like receptors
Overview
Fushi tarazu F1-like receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 114) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand.
6A. Germ cell nuclear factor receptors
Overview
Germ cell nuclear factor receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 117) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand.
Nomenclature | Germ cell nuclear factor |
Systematic nomenclature | NR6A1 |
HGNC, UniProt | NR6A1, Q15406 |
0B. DAX-like receptors
Overview
Dax-like receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR committee on nuclear hormone receptors 118) have yet to be officially paired with an endogenous ligand.
Steroid hormone receptors
Overview
Steroid hormone receptors (nomenclature as agreed by NC-IUPHAR Committee on Nuclear Receptors, 120,132) are nuclear hormone receptors of the NR3 class, with endogenous agonists that may be divided into 3-hydroxysteroids (estrone and 17β-estradiol) and 3-ketosteroids (dihydrotestosterone [DHT], aldosterone, cortisol, corticosterone, progesterone and testosterone). These receptors exist as dimers coupled with chaperone molecules (such as hsp90 (HSP90AB1, P08238) and immunophilin FKBP52:FKBP4, Q02790), which are shed on binding the steroid hormone. Although rapid signalling phenomena are observed 130,138, the principal signalling cascade appears to involve binding of the activated receptors to nuclear hormone response elements of the genome, with a 15-nucleotide consensus sequence AGAACAnnnTGTTCT (i.e. an inverted palindrome) as homo- or heterodimers. They also affect transcription by protein–protein interactions with other transcription factors, such as activator protein 1 (AP-1) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Splice variants of each of these receptors can form functional or non-functional monomers that can dimerize to form functional or non-functional receptors. For example, alternative splicing of PR mRNA produces A and B monomers that combine to produce functional AA, AB and BB receptors with distinct characteristics 148.
A 7TM receptor responsive to estrogen (GPER1, Q99527, also known as GPR30, see 137) has been described. Human orthologues of 7TM ‘membrane progestin receptors’ (PAQR7, PAQR8 and PAQR5), initially discovered in fish 151,152, appear to localize to intracellular membranes and respond to ‘non-genomic’ progesterone analogues independently of G proteins 142.
3A. Estrogen receptors
Nomenclature | Estrogen receptor-α | Estrogen receptor-β |
Systematic nomenclature | NR3A1 | NR3A2 |
HGNC, UniProt | ESR1, P03372 | ESR2, Q92731 |
Selective agonists (pKi) | PPT (9.64) 128,143 | ERB 041 133, diarylpropionitril (8.6) 135,143, WAY200070 (pIC50 8.52 – 9.0) 133 |
Selective antagonists (pKi) | methyl-piperidino-pyrazole (8.57) 145 | PHTPP 119, R,R-THC (8.44) 134,146 |
Comments
R,R-THC exhibits partial agonist activity at ERα 134,146. Estrogen receptors may be blocked non-selectively by tamoxifen and raloxifene and labelled by [3H]17β-estradiol and [3H]tamoxifen. Many agents thought initially to be antagonists at estrogen receptors appear to have tissue-specific efficacy (e.g. tamoxifen is an antagonist at estrogen receptors in the breast, but is an agonist at estrogen receptors in the uterus), hence the descriptor SERM (selective estrogen receptor modulator) or SnuRM (selective nuclear receptor modulator). Y134 has been suggested to be an ERα-selective estrogen receptor modulator 136.
3C. 3-Ketosteroid receptors
Nomenclature | Androgen receptor | Glucocorticoid receptor | Mineralocorticoid receptor | Progesterone receptor |
Systematic nomenclature | NR3C4 | NR3C1 | NR3C2 | NR3C3 |
HGNC, UniProt | AR, P10275 | NR3C1, P04150 | NR3C2, P08235 | PGR, P06401 |
Rank order of potency | dihydrotestosterone>testosterone | cortisol,corticosterone>>aldosterone,deoxycortisone 139 | corticosterone,cortisol,aldosterone,progesterone 139 | progesterone |
Endogenous agonists (pKi) | dihydrotestosterone (pKd 9.3) 147 | – | aldosterone (Selective) (pIC50 9.8 – 10.0) 126,139 | progesterone (Selective) |
Selective agonists (pKi) | methyltrienolone (pEC50 < 5.0) 149, mibolerone (pIC50 8.96) 124 | fluticasone, RU26988, RU28362 | – | levonorgestrel 140, ORG2058 |
Selective antagonists (pKi) | hydroxyflutamide (pEC50 6.6) 149, PF0998425 (pIC50 7.1 – 7.5) 131, nilutamide (pIC50 7.07 – 7.12) 141 | onapristone, ZK112993, mifepristone (pKd 9.4) 125,139 | onapristone, RU28318, ZK112993, eplerenone (pIC50 1.0) 121,127 | mifepristone, onapristone, ZK112993 |
Radioligands (Kd) | [3H]dihydrotestosterone (Agonist), [3H]mibolerone (Agonist), [3H]R1881 (Agonist) | [3H]dexamethasone (Agonist) | [3H]aldosterone (Agonist) (3x10-10 – 4x10-10 M - Rat) 123,144 | [3H]ORG2058 (Agonist) |
Comments
[3H]dexamethasone also binds to MR in vitro. PR antagonists have been suggested to subdivide into Type I (e.g. onapristone) and Type II (e.g. ZK112993) groups. These groups appear to promote binding of PR to DNA with different efficacies and evoke distinct conformational changes in the receptor, leading to a transcription-neutral complex 122,129. Mutations in AR underlie testicular feminization and androgen insensibility syndromes, spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (Kennedy's disease).
Further reading
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